Neuronal protection and destruction by NO

Abstract

Nitric oxide (NO)-related species include different redox states of the NO group, which have recently been reported to exist endogenously in biological tissues including the brain. The importance of these different NO-related species is that their distinct chemical reactivities can influence the life and death of neurons in response to various insults. In the case of NO+ equivalents (having one less electron than NO.), the mechanism of reaction often involves S-nitrosylation or transfer of the NO group to the sulfhydryl of a cysteine residue (or more properly to a thiolate anion) to form an RS-NO; further oxidation of critical thiols can possibly then form disulfide bonds from neighboring cysteine residues. We have mounted both physiological and chemical evidence that N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) activity and caspase enzyme activity can be decreased by S-nitrosylation, as can other signaling molecules involved in neuronal apoptotic pathways, to afford neuroprotection. Over the past 5 years, beginning with our report on the NMDAR, evidence has accumulated that S-nitrosylation can regulate the biological activity of a great variety of proteins, in some ways akin to phosphorylation. Thus, this chemical reaction is gaining acceptance as a newly-recognized molecular switch to control protein function via reactive thiol groups, such as those encountered on the NMDAR and in the active site of caspases. One method of producing S-nitrosylation of the NMDAR and caspases is the administration of nitroglycerin, and nitroglycerin can be neuroprotective in acute focal ischemia/reperfusion models via mechanisms other than increasing cerebral blood flow. In contrast, NO* itself does not appear to react with thiol under physiological conditions. In fact, the favored reaction of NO* is with O2*- (superoxide anion) to form ONOO- (peroxynitrite), which can lead to neurotoxicity. A third NO-related species with one added electron compared to NO* is nitroxyl anion (NO-). NO- -unlike NO* but reminiscent of NO+ transfer - reacts with critical thiol groups of the NMDA receptor to curtail excessive Ca2+ influx and thus provide neuroprotection from excitotoxic insults.