Skip to main page content
U.S. flag

An official website of the United States government

Dot gov

The .gov means it’s official.
Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

Https

The site is secure.
The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

Access keys NCBI Homepage MyNCBI Homepage Main Content Main Navigation
Meta-Analysis
. 2004;2004(1):CD003656.
doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD003656.pub2.

Advice to reduce dietary salt for prevention of cardiovascular disease

L Hooper  1 , C Bartlett, Smith G Davey, S Ebrahim
Affiliations
Meta-Analysis

Advice to reduce dietary salt for prevention of cardiovascular disease

L Hooper et al. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2004.

Abstract

Background: Restricting sodium intake in elevated blood pressure over short periods of time reduces blood pressure. Long term effects (on mortality, morbidity or blood pressure) of advice to reduce salt in patients with elevated or normal blood pressure are unclear.

Objectives: To assess in adults the long term effects (mortality, cardiovascular events, blood pressure, quality of life, weight, urinary sodium excretion, other nutrients and use of anti-hypertensive medications) of advice to restrict dietary sodium using all relevant randomised controlled trials.

Search strategy: The Cochrane Library, MEDLINE, EMBASE, bibliographies of included studies and related systematic reviews were searched for unconfounded randomised trials in healthy adults aiming to reduce sodium intake over at least 6 months. Attempts were made to trace unpublished or missed studies and authors of all included trials were contacted. There were no language restrictions.

Selection criteria: Inclusion decisions were independently duplicated and based on the following criteria: 1) randomisation was adequate; 2) there was a usual or control diet group; 3) the intervention aimed to reduce sodium intake; 4) the intervention was not multifactorial; 5) the participants were not children, acutely ill, pregnant or institutionalised; 6) follow-up was at least 26 weeks; 7) data on any of the outcomes of interest were available.

Data collection and analysis: Decisions on validity and data extraction were made independently by two reviewers, disagreements were resolved by discussion or if necessary by a third reviewer. Random effects meta-analysis, sub-grouping, sensitivity analysis and meta-regression were performed.

Main results: Three trials in normotensives (n=2326), five in untreated hypertensives (n=387) and three in treated hypertensives (n=801) were included, with follow up from six months to seven years. The large, high quality (and therefore most informative) studies used intensive behavioural interventions. Deaths and cardiovascular events were inconsistently defined and reported; only 17 deaths equally distributed between intervention and control groups occurred. Systolic and diastolic blood pressures were reduced at 13 to 60 months in those given low sodium advice as compared with controls (systolic by 1.1 mm Hg, 95% CI 1.8 to 0.4, diastolic by 0.6 mm hg, 95% CI 1.5 to -0.3), as was urinary 24 hour sodium excretion (by 35.5 mmol/ 24 hours, 95% CI 47.2 to 23.9). Degree of reduction in sodium intake and change in blood pressure were not related. People on anti-hypertensive medications were able to stop their medication more often on a reduced sodium diet as compared with controls, while maintaining similar blood pressure control.

Reviewer's conclusions: Intensive interventions, unsuited to primary care or population prevention programmes, provide only minimal reductions in blood pressure during long-term trials. Further evaluations to assess effects on morbidity and mortality outcomes are needed for populations as a whole and for patients with elevated blood pressure. Evidence from a large and small trial showed that a low sodium diet helps in maintenance of lower blood pressure following withdrawal of antihypertensives. If this is confirmed, with no increase in cardiovascular events, then targeting of comprehensive dietary and behavioural programmes in patients with elevated blood pressure requiring drug treatment would be justified.

PubMed Disclaimer

Conflict of interest statement

None of the reviewers have ever received funding in any form from food or beverage industries or anti‐salt lobby groups. LH owned 285 shares in the West Indies Rum Distillery Ltd, Barbados at the time of completing the review.

Figures

1.1
1.1. Analysis
Comparison 1 Mortality and cardiovascular morbidity, Outcome 1 Mortality.
1.2
1.2. Analysis
Comparison 1 Mortality and cardiovascular morbidity, Outcome 2 Cardiovascular morbidity.
2.1
2.1. Analysis
Comparison 2 Systolic blood pressure, Outcome 1 Trials with 6 to 12 months of follow up.
2.2
2.2. Analysis
Comparison 2 Systolic blood pressure, Outcome 2 Trials with 13 to 60 months of follow up.
2.3
2.3. Analysis
Comparison 2 Systolic blood pressure, Outcome 3 Trials with more than 60 months of follow up.
3.1
3.1. Analysis
Comparison 3 Diastolic blood pressure, Outcome 1 Trials with 6 to 12 months of follow up.
3.2
3.2. Analysis
Comparison 3 Diastolic blood pressure, Outcome 2 Trials with 13 to 60 months of follow up.
3.3
3.3. Analysis
Comparison 3 Diastolic blood pressure, Outcome 3 Trials with more than 60 months of follow up.
4.1
4.1. Analysis
Comparison 4 Urinary sodium excretion, Outcome 1 Urinary sodium excretion at different times following intervention.
5.1
5.1. Analysis
Comparison 5 Dropouts, Outcome 1 Comparison of dropouts at longest follow up.
See this image and copyright information in PMC

Update of

Similar articles

See all similar articles

Cited by

See all "Cited by" articles

References

References to studies included in this review

Alli 1992 {published data only}
    1. Alli C, Avanzini F, Bettelli G, Bonati M, Colombo F, Corso R, Tullio M, Gentile MG, Sangalli L, Taioli E, Tognoni G. Feasibility of a long‐term low‐sodium diet in mild hypertension. Journal of Human Hypertension 1992;6(4):281‐286. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Arroll 1995 {published and unpublished data}
    1. Arroll B, Beaglehole R. Salt restriction and physical activity in treated hypertensives. N Z Med J 1995;108(1003):266‐268. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Costa 1981 {published data only}
    1. Costa FV, Ambrosioni E, Montebugnoli L, Paccaloni L, Vasconi L, Magnani B. Effects of low‐salt diet and of acute salt loading on blood pressure and intralymphatic sodium concentration in young subjects with borderline hypertension. Clinical Science 1981;61(Supplement 7):21s‐23s. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
HPT {published and unpublished data}
    1. Borhani NO, Tonascia J, Schlundt DG, Prineas RJ, Jefferys JL. Recruitment in the Hypertension Prevention trial. Hypertension Prevention Trial Research Group. Controlled Clin Trials 1989;10(3 Suppl):30S‐39S. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
    1. Brown KM, Oberman A, Natta ML, Forster JL. Baseline characteristics in the hypertension prevention trial. Controlled Clinical Trials 1989;10(3 supplement):40S‐64S. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
    1. Forster JL, Jeffery RW, VanNatta M, Pirie P. Hypertension prevention trial: do 24‐h food records capture usual eating behavior in a dietary study?. Am J Clin Nutr 1990;51(2):253‐257. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
    1. Hypertension Prevention Trial Research Group. The Hypertension Prevention Trial: three‐year effects of dietary changes on blood pressure. Arch Intern Med 1990;150(1):153‐162. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
    1. Jeffery RW, French SA, Schmid TL. Attributions for dietary failures: problems reported by participants in the Hypertension Prevention Trial. Health Psychol 1990;9(3):315‐329. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Morgan 1978 {published and unpublished data}
    1. Morgan T, Adam W, Gillies A, Wilson M, Morgan G, Carney S. Hypertension treated by salt restriction. Lancet 1978;1(8058):227‐230. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
    1. Morgan TO, Adams WR, Hodgson M, Gibberd RW. Failure of therapy to improve prognosis in elderly males with hypertension. Medical Journal of Australia 1980;2(1):27‐31. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Morgan 1987 {published data only}
    1. Morgan T, Anderson A. Sodium restriction can delay the return of hypertension in patients previously well‐controlled on drug therapy. Can J Physiol Pharmacol 1987;65(8):1752‐1755. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Silman 1983 {published data only}
    1. Silman AJ, Locke C, Humpherson P. Salt restriction and no drug treatment in mild to moderate hypertension [letter]. Lancet 1982;1(8277):903‐904. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
    1. Silman AJ, Locke C, Mitchell P, Humpherson P. Evaluation of the effectiveness of a low sodium diet in the treatment of mild to moderate hypertension. Lancet 1983;1(8335):1179‐1182. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Thaler men 1982 {published and unpublished data}
    1. Thaler BI, Paulin JM, Phelan EL, Simpson FO. A pilot study to test the feasibility of salt restriction in a community. N Z Med J 1982;95(721):839‐842. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Thaler women 1982 {published and unpublished data}
    1. Thaler BI, Paulin JM, Phelan EL, Simpson FO. A pilot study to test the feasibility of salt restriction in a community. N Z Med J 1982;95(721):839‐842. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
TOHP phase I {published data only}
    1. Cook NR, Kumanyika SK, Cutler JA. Effect of change in sodium excretion on change in blood pressure corrected for measurement error. Am J Epidemiol 1998;148(5):431‐444. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
    1. He J, Whelton PK, Appel LJ, Charleston J, Klag MJ. Long‐term effects of weight loss and dietary sodium reduction on incidence of hypertension.. Hypertension 2000;35(2):544‐550. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
    1. Kumanyika SK, Hebert PR, Cutler JA, Lasser VI, Sugars CP, Steffen BL, Brewer AA, Cameron M, Shepek LD, Cook NR, et a. Feasibility and efficacy of sodium reduction in the Trials of Hypertension Prevention, phase I. Trials of Hypertension Prevention Collaborative Research Group. Hypertension 1993;22(4):502‐512. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
    1. Sacks FM, Hebert P, Appel LJ, Borhani NO, Applegate WB, Cohen JD, Cutler JA, Kirchner KA, Kuller LH, Roth KJ, et a. The effect of fish oil on blood pressure and high‐density lipoprotein‐cholesterol levels in phase I of the Trials of Hypertension Prevention. Trials of Hypertension Prevention Collaborative Research Group. J Hypertens Suppl 1994;12(7):S23‐S31. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
    1. Satterfield S, Cutler JA, Langford HG, Applegate WB, Borhani NO, Brittain E, Cohen JD, Kuller LH, Lasser NL, Oberman A, Rosner B, Taylor JO, Vogt TM, Walker G, and Whelton PK for the Trials of Hypertension Prevention Collaborative Research Group. Trials of hypertension prevention. Phase I design. Ann Epidemiol 1991;1(5):455‐471. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
TOHP phase II {published data only}
    1. Appel LJ, Hebert PR, Cohen JD, Obarzanek E, Yamamoto M, Buring J, Stevens V, Kirchner K, Borhani NO. Baseline characteristics of participants in phase II of the Trials of Hypertension Prevention (TOHP II). Trials of Hypertension Prevention (TOHP) Collaborative Research Group. Ann Epidemiol 1995;5(2):149‐155. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
    1. Hebert PR, Bolt RJ, Borhani NO, Cook NR, Cohen JD, Cutler JA, Hollis JF, Kuller LH, Lasser NL, Oberman A, Miller ST, Morris C, Whelton PK, Hennekens CH, for the Trials of Hypertension Prevention (TOHP) Collaborative Research Group. Design of a multicenter trial to evaluate long‐term life‐style intervention in adults with high‐normal blood pressure levels. Trials of Hypertension Prevention (Phase II).. Ann Epidemiol 1995;5(2):130‐139. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
    1. Hollis JF, Satterfield S, Smith F, Fouad M, Allender PS, Borhani N, Charleston J, Hirlinger M, King N, Schultz R, Sousoulas BG, on behalf of Trials of Hypertension Prevention (TOHP) Collaborative Research Group. Recruitment for phase II of the Trials of Hypertension Prevention. Effective strategies and predictors of randomization.. Ann Epidemiol 1995;5(2):140‐148. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
    1. Hunt SC, Cook NR, Oberman A, Cutler JA, Hennekens CH, Allender PS, Walker WG, Whelton PK, Williams RR. Angiotensinogen genotype, sodium reduction, weight loss, and prevention of hypertension. Trials of Hypertension Prevention, Phase II. Hypertension 1998;32(3):393‐401. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
    1. Lasser VI, Raczynski JM, Stevens VJ, Mattfeldt‐Beman M, Kumanyika S, Evans M, Danielson E, Dalcin A, Batey DM, Belden LK and Brewer AA for the Trials Of Hypertension Prevention (TOPH) Collaborative Research Group. Trials of Hypertension Prevention, phase II. Structure and content of the weight loss and dietary sodium reduction interventions. Trials of Hypertension Prevention (TOHP) Collaborative Research Group. Ann Epidemiol 1995;5(2):156‐164. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
TONE {published data only}
    1. Appel LJ, Espeland M, Whelton PK, Dolecek T, Kumanyika S, Applegate WB, Ettinger WH Jr, Kostis JB, Wilson AC, Lacy C, Miller ST. Trial of Nonpharmacologic Intervention in the Elderly (TONE). Design and rationale of a blood pressure control trial. Ann Epidemiol 1995;5(2):119‐129. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
    1. Appel LJ, Espeland MA, Easter L, Wilson AC, Folmar S, Lacy CR. Effects of redcued sodium intake on hypertension control in older individuals. Results from the Trial of Nonpharmacological Interventions in the Elderly (TONE). Arch Intern Med 2001;161(5):685‐693. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
    1. Bahnson JL, Whelton PK, Appel LJ, Espeland MA, Wofford JL, Rosen R, Wilson AC, Lacey CR, Rutan G, Hogan P, Tayback M, Dolecek TA, Shindler D. Baseline characteristics of randomized participants in the trial of nonpharmacologic intervention in the elderly (TONE). Disease Management and Clinical Outcomes 1997;1(2):61‐68. [EMBASE Accession number is 1998019109]
    1. Espeland MA, Whelton PK, Kostis JB, Bahnson JL, Ettinger WH, Cutler JA, Appel LJ, Kumanyika S, Farmer D, Elam J, Wilson AC, Applegate WB. Predictors and mediators of successful long‐term withdrawal from antihypertensive medications. Arch Fam Med 1999;8(3):228‐236. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
    1. Kostis JB, Espeland MA, Appel LJ, Johnson KC, Pierce J, James L. Does withdrawal of antihypertensive medication increase the risk of cardiovascular events?. Am J Cardiol 1998;82(12):1501‐1508. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed

References to studies excluded from this review

Aberg 1989 {published data only}
    1. Aberg H, Tibblin G. Addition of non‐pharmacological methods of treatment in patients on antihypertensive drugs: results of previous medication, laboratory tests and life quality. Journal of Internal Medicine 1989;226(1):39‐46. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Ambard 1904 {published data only}
    1. Ambard L. Causes de l'hypertension arterielle. Archives of General Medicine 1904;1:520‐533.
Ambrosioni 1982 {published data only}
    1. Ambrosioni E, Costa F, Borghi C, montebugnoli M, Giordani M, Vasconi L. Effects of moderate salt restriction and high potassium intake on intralymphocytic sodium content and pressor response to stress in borderline hypertension. Clinical Science 1982;63:231S‐234S. - PubMed
Anderson 1990 {published data only}
    1. Anderson A, Morgan T. Interaction of enalapril with sodium restriction, diuretics, and slow‐channel calcium‐blocking drugs. Nephron 1990;55(Suppl 1):70‐72. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Berglund 1989 {published data only}
    1. Berglund A, Andersson OK, Berglund G, Fagerberg B. Antihypertensive effect of diet compared with drug treatment in obese men with mild hypertension. BMJ 1989;299(6697):480‐485. [MEDLINE: ] - PMC - PubMed
Bompiani 1988 {published data only}
    1. Bompiani GD, Cerasola G, Morici M, Condorelli M, Trimarco B, Luca N, Leonetti G, Sampieri L, Cuspidi C, Cottone S, D'Ignoto G. Effects of moderate low sodium / high potassium diet on essential hypertension: results of a comparative study. Int Journal of Clinical Phrmacology, Therapy and Toxicology 1988;26(3):129‐132. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Cappuccio 1997 {published data only}
    1. Cappuccio FP, Markandu ND, Carney C, Sagnella GA, MacGregor GA. Double‐blind randomised trial of modest salt restriction in older people [see comments]. Lancet 1997;350(9081):850‐854. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Carney 1975 {published data only}
    1. Carney S, Morgan T, Wilson M, Matthews G, Roberts R. Sodium restriction and thiazide diuretics in the treatment of hypertension. Medical Journal of Australia 1975;1(26):803‐807. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Corcoran 1951 {published data only}
    1. Corcoran AC, Taylor RD, Page IH. Controlled observations on the effect of low sodium dietotherapy in essential hypertension. Circulation 1951;III:1‐16. - PubMed
Dahl 1958 {published data only}
    1. Dahl L, Silver L, Christie R. The role of salt in teh fall of blood pressure accompanying reduction in obesity. New England Journal of Medicine 1958;258:1186‐1192. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
DASH {published data only}
    1. Appel LJ, Moore TJ, Obarzanek E, Vollmer WM, Svetkey LP, Sacks FM, Bray GA, Vogt TM, Cutler JA, Windhauser MM, Lin PH, Karanja N. A clinical trial of the effects of dietary patterns on blood pressure. DASH Collaborative Research Group. N Engl J Med 1997;336(16):1117‐1124. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
    1. Sacks FM, Appel LJ, Moore TJ, Obarzanek E, Vollmer WM, Svetkey LP, Bray GA, Vogt TM, Cutler JA, Windhauser MM, Lin PH, Karanja N. A dietary approach to prevent hypertension: a review of the dietary approaches to stop hypertension (DASH) study. Clinical Cardiology 1999;22(7 Supplement):III 6‐10. [MEDLINE: ] - PMC - PubMed
    1. Sacks FM, Svetkey LP, Vollmer WM, Appel LJ, Bray GA, Harsha D, Obarzanek E, Conlin PR, Miller ERI, Simons‐Morton DG, Karanja N, Lin P‐H, Aickin M, Most‐Windhauser MM, Moore TJ, Proschan MA, Cutler JA. Effects on blood pressure of reduced dietary sodium and the Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) diet. New England Journal of Medicine 2001;344(1):3‐10. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
    1. Svetkey LP, Simons‐Morton DG, Vollmer WM, Appel LJ, Conlin PR, Ryan DH, Ard J, Kennedy BM. Effects of dietary patterns on blood pressure: subgroup analysis of the dietary approaches to stop hypertension (DASH) randomized clinical trial. Archives of Internal Medicine 1999;159(3):285‐293. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
DISH {published data only}
    1. Blaufox MD, Langford HG, Oberman A, Hawkins CM, Wassertheil SS, Cutter GR. Effect of dietary change on the return of hypertension after withdrawal of prolonged antihypertensive therapy (DISH). Dietary Intervention Study of Hypertension. J Hypertens Suppl 1984;2(3):S179‐S181. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
    1. Langford HG, Blaufox MD, Oberman A, Hawkins CM, Curb JD, Cutter GR, Wassertheil SS, Pressel S, Babcock C, Abernethy JD, et a. Dietary therapy slows the return of hypertension after stopping prolonged medication. JAMA 1985;253(5):657‐664. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
    1. Wassertheil SS, Blaufox MD, Langford HG, Oberman A, Cutter G, Pressel S. Prediction of response to sodium intervention for blood pressure control. J Hypertens Suppl 1986;4(5):S343‐S346. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
    1. Wassertheil SS, Langford HG, Blaufox MD, Oberman A, Hawkins M, Levine B, Cameron M, Babcock C, Pressel S, Caggiula A, et a. Effective dietary intervention in hypertensives: sodium restriction and weight reduction. J Am Diet Assoc 1985;85(4):423‐430. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Dole 1951 {published data only}
    1. Dole V, Dahl L, Cotzias G, Dziewiatkowski D, Harris C. Dietary treatment of hypertension. II Sodium depletion as related to the therapeutic effect. Journal of Clinical Investigation 1951;30:584‐595. - PMC - PubMed
Dubbert 1995 {published data only}
    1. Dubbert PM, Cushman WC, Meydrech EF, Rowland AK, Maury P. Effects of dietary instruction and sodium excretion feedback in hypertension clinic patients. Behavior Therapy 1995;26(4):721‐732. [MEDLINE: ]
Erwteman 1984 {published data only}
    1. Erwteman TM, Nagelkerke N, Lubsen J, Koster M, Dunning AJ. Beta blockade, diuretics, and salt restriction for the management of mild hypertension: a randomised double blind trial. Br Med J Clin Res Ed 1984;289(6442):406‐409. [MEDLINE: ] - PMC - PubMed
Evers 1987 {published data only}
    1. Evers SE, Bass M, Donner A, McWhinney IR. Lack of impact of salt restriction advice on hypertensive patients. Preventive Medicine 1987;16(2):213‐220. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Fagerberg 1984 {published data only}
    1. Fagerberg B, Andersson OK, Isaksson B, Bjorntorp P. Blood pressure control during weight reduction in obese hypertensive men: separate effects of sodium and energy restriction. Br Med J Clin Res Ed 1984;288(6410):11‐14. [MEDLINE: ] - PMC - PubMed
Geleijnse 1995 {published data only}
    1. Geleijnse JM, Witteman JC, Bak AA, den BJ, Grobbee DE. Long‐term moderate sodium restriction does not adversely affect the serum HDL/total cholesterol ratio. J Hum Hypertens 1995;9(12):975‐979. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Gillum 1983 {published data only}
    1. Gillum RF, Prineas RJ, Jeffery RW, Jacobs DR, Elmer PJ, Gomez O, Blackburn H. Nonpharmacologic therapy of hypertension: the independent effects of weight reduction and sodium restriction in overweight borderline hypertensive patients. Am Heart J 1983;105(1):128‐133. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Grimm 1990 {published data only}
    1. Grimm RH Jr, Neaton JD, Elmer PJ, Svendsen KH, Levin J, Segal M, Holland L, Witte LJ, Clearman DR, Kofron P, Bounty RK, Crow R, Prineas RJ. The influence of oral potassium chloride on blood pressure in hypertensive men on a low‐sodium diet. N Engl J Med 1990;322(9):569‐574. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
HCP {published data only}
    1. Stamler R, Grimm RH Jr, Dyer AR, Talano JV, Prineas R, Crow R, Berman R, Gosch FC, Elmer P, Stamler J. Cardiac status after four years in a trial on nutritional therapy for high blood pressure. Arch Intern Med 1989;149(3):661‐665. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
    1. Stamler R, Stamler J, Grimm R, Dyer A, Gosch FC, Berman R, Elmer P, Fishman J, Heel N, Civinelli J, Hoeksema R. Nonpharmacological control of hypertension. Prev Med 1985;14(3):336‐345. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
    1. Stamler R, Stamler J, Grimm R, Gosch F, Dyer A, Berman R, Civinelli J, Elmer P, Fishman J, Heel N, McDonald A, McKeever P. Trial on control of hypertension by nutritional means: three‐year results. J Hypertens Suppl 1984;2(3):S167‐S170. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
    1. Stamler R, Stamler J, Grimm R, Gosch FC, Elmer P, Dyer A, Berman R, Fishman J, Heel N, Civinelli J, McDonald A. Nutritional therapy for high blood pressure. Final report of a four‐year randomized controlled trial‐‐the Hypertension Control Program. JAMA 1987;257(11):1484‐1491. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
    1. Stamler R, Stamler J, Grimm R, Gosch FC, Elmer P, Dyer A, Berman R, Fishman J, Heel N, Civinelli J, McDonald A. Nutritional therapy for high blood pressure. Final report of a four‐year randomized controlled trial‐‐the Hypertension Control Program. JAMA 1987;257(11):1484‐1491. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Henningsen 1980 {published data only}
    1. Henningsen NC. Salt and essential hypertension. [Swedish]. Var Foda 1980;32(6/7):345‐354.
Holly 1981 {published data only}
    1. Holly JM, Goodwin FJ, Evans SJ, Vandenburg MJ, Ledingham JM. Re‐analysis of data in two Lancet papers on the effect of dietary sodium and potassium on blood pressure. Lancet 1981;2(8260‐61):1384‐1387. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Iwaoka 1994 {published data only}
    1. Iwaoka T, Umeda T, Inoue J, Naomi S, Sasaki M, Fujimoto Y, Gui C, Ideguchi Y, Sato T. Dietary NaCl restriction deteriorates oral glucose tolerance in hypertensive patients with impairment of glucose tolerance. Am J Hypertens 1994;7(5):460‐463. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Jula 1990 {published data only}
    1. Jula A, Ronnemaa T, Rastas M, Karvetti RL, Maki J. Long‐term nopharmacological treatment for mild to moderate hypertension. J Intern Med 1990;227(6):413‐421. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Jula 1992a {published data only}
    1. Jula A, Ronnemaa T, Tikkanen I, Karanko H. Responses of atrial natriuretic factor to long‐term sodium restriction in mild to moderate hypertension. J Intern Med 1992;231(5):521‐529. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Jula 1992b {published data only}
    1. Jula AM, Ronnemaa TE, Piha SJ, Maki JP. Response of diastolic blood pressure to long‐term sodium restriction is posture related. Scandinavian Journal of Clinical and Laboratory Investigation 1992;52(3):159‐167. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Jula 1994 {published data only}
    1. Jula AM, Karanko HM. Effects on left ventricular hypertrophy of long‐term nonpharmacological treatment with sodium restriction in mild‐to‐moderate essential hypertension. Circulation 1994;89(3):1023‐1031. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Koopman 1990 {published data only}
    1. Koopman H, Spreeuwenberg C, Westerman RF, Donker AJ. Dietary treatment of patients with mild to moderate hypertension in a general practice: a pilot intervention study (2). Beyond three months. J Hum Hypertens 1990;4(4):372‐374. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
    1. Koopman H, Spreeuwenberg C, Westerman RF, Donker AJM. Dietary treatment of patients with mild to moderate hypertension in a general practice: a pilot intervention study. (2) Beyond 3 months. Journal of Human Hypertension 1990;4(4):372‐374. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Korhonen 1999 {published data only}
    1. Korhonen MH, Litmanen H, Rauramaa R, Vaisanen SB, Niskanen L, Uusitupa J. Adherence to the salt restriction diet among people with mildly elevated blood pressure. European Jouranl of Clinical Nutrition 1999;53(11):880‐885. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Logan 1986 {published and unpublished data}
    1. Logan AG. Sodium manipulation in the management of hypertension. The view against its general use. Canadian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology 1986;64(6):793‐802. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
    1. Logan AG, Flanagan PT, Haynes RB. Effect of dietary sodium restriction alone in the treatment of mild hypertension. unpublished.
MacGregor 1982a {published data only}
    1. MacGregor GA, Markandu ND, Sagnella GA. Dietary sodium restriction in normotensive subjects and patients with essential hypertension. Clin Sci 1982;63:399S‐402S. - PubMed
MacGregor 1982b {published data only}
    1. MacGregor GA, Markandu ND, Best FE, Elder DM, Cam JM, Sagnella GA, Squires M. Double‐blind randomised crossover trial of moderate sodium restriction in essential hypertension. Lancet 1982;1(8268):351‐355. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
MacGregor 1989 {published data only}
    1. MacGregor GA, Markandu ND, Sagnella GA, Singer DR, Cappuccio FP. Double‐blind study of three sodium intakes and long‐term effects of sodium restriction in essential hypertension. Lancet 1989;2(8674):1244‐1247. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Magnani 1976 {published data only}
    1. Magnani B, Ambrosioni E, Agosta R, Racco F. Comparison of the effects of pharmacological therapy anda low‐sodium diet on mild hypertension. Clin Sci Mol Med Suppl 1976;3:625S‐626S. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
McDonald 1988 {published data only}
    1. McDonald AM, Dyer AR, Liu K, Stamler R, Gosch FC, Grimm R, Berman R, Stamler J. Sodium, lithium‐countertransport and blood pressure control by nutritional intervention in 'mild' hypertension. J Hypertens 1988;6(4):283‐291. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Morgan 1988 {published data only}
    1. Morgan T, Anderson A. Interaction in hypertensive men between sodium intake, converting enzyme inhibitor (enalapril), plasma renin and blood pressure control. Journal of Human Hypertension 1988;1(4):311‐315. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Muhlhauser 1993 {published data only}
    1. Muhlhauser I, Sawicki PT, Didjurgeit U, Jorgens V, Trampisch HJ, Berger M. Evaluation of a structured treatment and teaching programme on hypertension in general practice. Clin Exp Hypertens 1993;15(1):125‐142. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Myers 1989 {published data only}
    1. Myers JB. Reduced sodium chloride intake normalises blood pressure distribution. Journal of Human Hypertension 1989;3(2):97‐104. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Nestel 1993 {published data only}
    1. Nestel PJ, Clifton PM, Noakes M, McArthur R, Howe PR. Enhanced blood pressure response to dietary salt in elderly women, especially those with small waist:hip ratio. Journal of Hypertension 1993;11(12):1387‐1394. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Neyses 1985 {published data only}
    1. Neyses L, Dorst K, Michaelis J, Berres M, Philipp T, Distler A, Losse H, Vetter H, Epstein FH, Vetter W. Compliance with salt restriction as a limiting factor in the primary prevention of hypertension. J Hypertens Suppl 1985;3(1):S87‐S90. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Nicholson 1986 {published data only}
    1. Nicholson JP, Resnick LM, Laragh JA. The impact of dietary sodium intake on the hypotensive response of verapamil in essential hypertension. J Clin Hypertens 1986;2(3 Suppl):143S‐147S. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Nicholson 1987 {published data only}
    1. Nicholson JP, Resnick LM, Laragh JH. The antihypertensive effect of verapamil at extremes of dietary sodium intake. Ann Intern Med 1987;107(3):329‐334. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Nowson 1988 {published data only}
    1. Nowson CA, Morgan TO. Change in blood pressure in relation to change in nutrients effected by manipulation of dietary sodium and potassium. Clinical and Experimental Pharmacology and Physiology 1988;15(3):225‐242. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Nugent 1984 {published data only}
    1. Nugent CA, Carnahan JE, Sheehan ET, Myers C. Salt restriction in hypertensive patients. Comparison of advice, education and group management.. Archives of Internal Medicine 1984;144(7):1415‐1417. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
ODES {published data only}
    1. Anderssen S, Holme I, Urdal P, Hjermann I. Diet and exercise intervention have favourable effects on blood pressure in mild hypertensives: the Oslo Diet and Exercise Study. (ODES). Blood Pressure 1995;4(6):343‐349. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Omvik 1986 {published data only}
    1. Omvik P, Lund‐Johansen P. Is sodium restriction effective treatment of borderline and mild essential hypertension? A long‐term haemodynamic study at rest and during exercise.. Journal of Hypertension 1986;4(5):535‐541. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Omvik 1995 {published data only}
    1. Omvik P, Myking OL. Unchanged central hemodynamics after six months of moderate sodium restriction with or without potassium supplement in essential hypertension. Blood Press 1995;4(1):32‐41. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Parijs 1973 {published data only}
    1. Parijs J, Joossens JV, Linden L, Verstreken G, Amery AK. Moderate sodium restriction and diuretics in the treatment of hypertension. American Heart Journal 1973;85(1):22‐34. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Perera 1947 {published data only}
    1. Perera G, Blood D. The relationship of sodium choride to hypertension. Journal of Clinical Investigation 1947;26:1109‐1117. - PMC - PubMed
Priddle 1962 {published data only}
    1. Priddle W. Hypertension‐sodium and potassium studies. Journal of the Canadian Medical Association 1962;86(1):1‐9. [Medline Unique Identifier is 62090301] - PMC - PubMed
Rissanen 1985 {published data only}
    1. Rissanen A, Pietinen P, Siljamaki OU, Piirainen H, Reissel P. Treatment of hypertension in obese patients: efficacy and feasibility of weight and salt reduction programs. Acta Med Scand 1985;218(2):149‐156. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Roca‐Cusachs 1991 {published data only}
    1. Roca‐Cusachs A, Sort D, Altimira J, Bonet R, Guilera E, Monmany J, Nolla J. The impact of a patient education programme in the control of hypertension. J Hum Hypertens 1991;5(5):437‐441. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Sagnella 1987 {published data only}
    1. Sagnella GA, Markandu ND, Buckley MG, Singer DR, Sugden AL, Shore AC, MacGregor GA. Plasma atrial natriuretic peptide in essential hypertension: effects of changes in dietary sodium. Br Med J Clin Res Ed 1987;295(6595):417‐418. [MEDLINE: ] - PMC - PubMed
Shibata 1979 {published data only}
    1. Shibata H, Hatano S. A salt restriction trial in Japan. In: Gross F, Strasser T editor(s). Mild hypertension: natural history and management. Bath: Pitman Medical, 1979.
Singer 1984 {published data only}
    1. Singer DR, Markandu ND, Cappuccio FP, Miller MA, Sagnella GA, Skrabal F, Gasser RW, Finkenstedt G, Rhomberg HP, Lochs A. Low‐sodium diet versus low‐sodium/high‐potassium diet for treatment of hypertension. Klinische.Wochenschrift 1984;62(3):124‐128. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Singer 1995 {published data only}
    1. Singer DR, Markandu ND, Cappuccio FP, Miller MA, Sagnella GA, MacGregor GA. Reduction of salt intake during converting enzyme inhibitor treatment compared with addition of a thiazide. Hypertension 1995;25(5):1042‐1044. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Stamler 1989 {published data only}
    1. Stamler R, Stamler J, Gosch FC, Civinelli J, Fishman J, McKeever P, McDonald A, Dyer AR. Primary prevention of hypertension by nutritional‐hygienic means. Final report of a randomized, controlled trial [published erratum appears in JAMA 1989 Dec 8;262(22):3132]. JAMA 1989;262(13):1801‐1807. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
    1. Stamler R, Stamler J, Gosch FC, McDonald AM. Primary prevention of hypertension‐‐a randomized controlled trial. Ann Clin Res 1984;16(Supplement 43):136‐142. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
TAIM {published data only}
    1. Blaufox MD, Lee HB, Davis B, Oberman A, Wassertheil‐Smoller S, Langford H. Renin predicts diastolic blood pressure response to nonpharmacologic and pharmacologic therapy. JAMA 1992;267(9):1221‐1225. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
    1. Davis BR, Blaufox MD, Oberman A, Wassertheil‐Smoller S, Zimbaldi N, Cutler JA, Kirchner K, Langford HG. Reduction in long‐term antihypertensive medication requirements. Effects of weight reduction by dietary intervention in overweight persons with mild hypertension. Arch Intern Med 1993;153(15):1773‐1782. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
    1. Davis BR, Oberman A, Blaufox MD, Wassertheil‐Smoller S, Hawkins CM, Cutler JA, Zimbaldi N, Langford HG. Effect of antihypertensive therapy on weight loss. The Trial of Antihypertensive Interventions and Management Research Group. Hypertension 1992;19(4):393‐399. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
    1. Davis BR, Oberman A, Blaufox MD, Wassertheil‐Smoller S, Zimbaldi N, Kirchner K, Wylie‐Rosett J, Langford HG. Lack of effectiveness of a low‐sodium/high‐potassium diet in reducing antihypertensive medication requirements in overweight persons with mild hypertension. TAIM Research Group. Trial of Antihypertensive Interventions and Management. Am J Hypertens 1994;7(10 Pt 1):926‐932. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
    1. Langford HG, Davis BR, Blaufox D, Oberman A, Wassertheil‐SmollerS, Hawkins M, Zimbaldi N. Effect of drug and diet treatment of mild hypertension on diastolic blood pressure. The TAIM Research Group. Hypertension 1991;17(2):210‐217. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
TOMHS {published data only}
    1. Elmer PJ, Grimm R Jr, Laing B, Grandits G, Svendsen K, Heel N, Betz E, Raines J, Link M, Stamler J and Neaton J for the TOMHS Research Group. Lifestyle intervention: results of the Treatment of Mild Hypertension Study (TOMHS). Prev Med 1995;24(4):378‐388. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
    1. Neaton JD, Grimm RH Jr, Prineas RJ, et al. Treatment of mild hypertension study: final results. Journal of the American Medical Association 1993;270(6):713‐724. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
    1. Stamler J, Prineas RJ, Neaton JD, et al. Background and design of the new U.S. trial on diet and drug treatment of "mild" hypertension (TOMHS). American Journal of Cardiology 1987;59(14):51G‐60G. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
    1. Treatment of Mild Hypertension Research Group. The treatment of mild hypertension study. A randomized, placebo‐controlled trial of a nutritional‐hygienic regimen along with various drug monotherapies. Archives of Internal Medicine 1991;151(7):1413‐1423. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Velloso 1991 {published data only}
    1. Velloso LG, Alonso RR, Ciscato CM, Barretto AC, Bellotti G, Pileggi F. [Diet with usual quantity of salt in hospital treatment of congestive heart insufficiency]. Arq Bras Cardiol 1991;57(6):465‐468. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Watt 1983 {published data only}
    1. Watt GC, Edwards C, Hart JT, Hart M, Walton P, Foy CJ. Dietary sodium restriction for mild hypertension in general practice. British Medical Journal Clinical Research.Ed 1983;286(6363):432‐436. [MEDLINE: ] - PMC - PubMed
Watt 1986 {published data only}
    1. Watt GC, Foy CJ, Hart JT. Dietary sodium and blood pressure in young people with and without familial predisposition to high blood pressure. J Clin Hypertens 1986;2(2):141‐147. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Weinberger 1988 {published data only}
    1. Weinberger MH, Cohen SJ, Miller JZ, Luft FC, Grim CE, Fineberg NS. Dietary sodium restriction as adjunctive treatment of hypertension. JAMA 1988;259(17):2561‐2565. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Wing 1984 {published data only}
    1. Wing RR, Caggiula AW, Nowalk MP, Koeske R, Lee S, Langford H. Dietary approaches to the reduction of blood pressure: the independence of weight and sodium/potassium interventions. Preventive Medicine 1984;13(3):233‐244. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Zoccali 1993 {published data only}
    1. Zoccali C, Mallamaci F, Leonardis D, Romeo M. Randomly allocated crossover study of various levels of sodium intake in patients with mild hypertension. J Hypertens Suppl 1993;11(Suppl 5):S326‐S327. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed

Additional references

Alam 1999
    1. Alam S, Johnson AG. A meta‐analysis of randomised controlled trials (RCT) among healthy normotensive and essential hypertensive elderly patients to determine the effect of high salt (NaCl) diet of blood pressure. J Hum Hypertens 1999;13(6):367‐374. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Alderman 1995
    1. Alderman MH, Madhavan S, Cohen H, Sealey JE, Laragh JH. Low urinary sodium is associated with greater risk of myocardial infarction among treated hypertensive men. Hypertension 1995;25(6):1144‐1152. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Alderman 1997
    1. Alderman MH, Ooi WL, Cohen H, Madhavan S, Sealey JE, Laragh JH. Plasma renin activity: a risk factor for myocardial infarction in hypertensive patients. American Journal of Hypertension 1997;10(1):1‐8. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Alderman 1998
    1. Alderman MH, Cohen H, Madhavan S. Dietary sodium intake and mortality: the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES I). Lancet 1998;351(9105):781‐785. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Allender 1996
    1. Allender PS, Cutler JA, Follmann D, Cappuccio FP, Pryer J, Elliott P. Dietary calcium and blood pressure: a meta‐analysis of randomized clinical trials. Annals of Internal Medicine 1996;124(9):825‐831. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Anonymous 2000
    1. Anonymous. Assessment of study quality. In: Clarke M, Oxman AD editor(s). Cochrane Reviewer's Handbook 4.1 [updated June 2000]. Oxford: Update Software, 2000.. Oxford: Update Software, 2000.
Barker 1998
    1. Barker DJP. Mothers, babies and health in later life. Second Edition. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone, 1998.
Berkley 1995
    1. Berkey CS, Hoaglin DC, Mosteller F, Colditz GA. A random‐effects regression model for meta‐analysis. Statistics in Medicine 1995;14(4):395‐411. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Brand 1999
    1. Brand MB, Mulrow CD, Chiquette E, Angel L, Cornell J, Summerbell CD, Anagnostelis B, Grimm RJ. Dieting to reduce body weight for controlling hypertension in adults. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2000, Issue 2. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD000484; MEDLINE: ] - DOI - PubMed
Cappuccio 1991
    1. Cappuccio FP, MacGregor GA. Does potassium supplementation lower blood pressure? A meta‐analysis of published trials. Journal of Hypertension 1991;9(5):465‐473. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Cutler 1997
    1. Cutler JA, Follmann D, Allender PS. Randomized trials of sodium reduction: an overview. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1997;65(2 Suppl):643S‐651S. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
DoH 2001
    1. Department of Health. The Annual Report of the Chief Medical Officer of the Department on Health 2001. Department of Health. London, 2001.
Donner 1982
    1. Donner A. An empirical study of cluster randomization. International Journal of Epidemiology 1982;11(3):283‐286. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Ebrahim 1996
    1. Ebrahim S, Davey Smith G. Health promotion in older people for the prevention of coronary heart disease and stroke. London: Health Education Authority, 1996.
Ebrahim 1998
    1. Ebrahim S, Davey Smith G. Lowering blood pressure: a systematic review of sustained effects of non‐pharmacological interventions. Journal of Public Health Medicine 1998;20(4):441‐448. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Elliott 1996
    1. Elliott P, Stamler J, Nichols R, Dyer AR, Stamler R, Kesteloot H, Marmot M. Intersalt revisited: further analyses of 24 hour sodium excretion and blood pressure within and across populations. Intersalt Cooperative Research Group.[erratum appears in BMJ 1997 Aug 23;315(7106):458.].. BMJ 1996;312(7041):1249‐1253. [MEDLINE: ] - PMC - PubMed
Follman 1992
    1. Follman D, Elliott P, Suh I, Cutler J. Variance imputation for overviews of clinical trails with continuous response. J Clin Epidemiol 1992;45(7):769‐773. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Graudal 1998
    1. Graudal NA, Galloe AM, Garred P. Effects of sodium restriction on blood pressure, renin, aldosterone, catecholamines, cholesterols and triglyceride: a meta‐analysis.. JAMA 1998;279(17):1383‐1391. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Griffith 1999
    1. Griffith LE, Guyatt GH, Cook RJ, Bucher HC, Cook DJ. The influence of dietary and non‐dietary calcium supplementation on blood pressure. An updated metaanalysis of randomized controlled trials. American Journal of Hypertension 1999;12(1 Pt 1):84‐92. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Hauck 1991
    1. Hauck WW, Gilliss CL, Donner A, Gortner S. Randomization by cluster. Nursing Research 1991;40(6):356‐358. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
He 1999
    1. He J, Ogden LG, Vupputuri S, Bazzano LA, Loria C, Whelton PK. Dietary sodium intake and subsequent risk of cardiovascular disease in overweight adults. JAMA 1999;282(21):2027‐2034. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
He 2001
    1. He FJ, MacGregor GA. Neonatal salt intake and blood pressure. Lancet 2001;357(9271):1880. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Hofman 1983
    1. Hofman A, Hazebroek A, Valkenburg HA. A randomized trial of sodium intake and blood pressure in newborn infants. JAMA 1983;250(3):370‐373. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Hooper 2000
    1. Hooper L, Summerbell CD, Higgins JPT, Thompson RL, Clements G, Capps N, Davey Smith G, Riemersma RA, Ebrahim S. Reduced or modified dietary fat for preventing cardiovascular disease. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2000, Issue 2. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD002137] - DOI - PubMed
Jurgens 2003
    1. Jurgens G, Graudal NA. Effects of low sodium diet versus high sodium diet on blood pressure, renin, aldosterone, catecholamines, cholesterols, and triglyceride. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2003, Issue 4. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD004022.pub2] - DOI - PubMed
Law 1991
    1. Law MR, Frost CD, Wald NJ. By how much does dietary salt reduction lower blood pressure? III‐‐Analysis of data from trials of salt reduction. [erratum appears in BMJ 1991 Apr 20;302(6782):939.].. BMJ 1991;302(6780):819‐824. [MEDLINE: ] - PMC - PubMed
Lucas 1988
    1. Lucas A, Morley R, Husdon GJ, Bamford MF, Boon A, Crowle P, Dossetor JF, Pearse R. Early sodium intake and later blood pressure in preterm infants. Archives of Disease in Childhood 1988;63(6):656‐657. [MEDLINE: ] - PMC - PubMed
MacGregor 1996
    1. MacGregor GA, Sever PS. Salt ‐‐ overwhelming evidence but still no action: can a consensus be reached with the food industry? CASH (Consensus Action on Salt and Hypertension).. BMJ 1996;312(7041):1287‐1289. [MEDLINE: ] - PMC - PubMed
MAFF 1999
    1. MAFF. National Food Survey, 1998. Annual report of food expenditure, consumption and nutrient intakes.. London: HMSO, 1999.
Midgley 1996
    1. Midgley JP, Matthew AG, Greenwood CM, Logan AG. Effect of reduced dietary sodium on blood pressure: a meta‐analysis of randomized controlled trials. JAMA 1996;275(20):1590‐1597. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Navar 1997
    1. Navar LG. The kidney in blood pressure regulation and development of hypertension. Medical Clinics of North America 1997;81(5):1165‐1198. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Ramsay 1999
    1. Ramsay LE, Williams B, Johnston GD, MacGregor GA, Poston L, Potter JF, Poulter NR, Russell G. British Hypertension Society guidelines for hypertension management 1999: summary. BMJ 1999;319(7210):630‐635. [MEDLINE: ] - PMC - PubMed
Ramsay 1999a
    1. Ramsay L, Williams B, Johnston G, MacGregor G, Poston L, Potter J, Poulter N, Russell G. Guidelines for management of hypertension: report of the third working party of the British Hypertension Society. Journal of Human Hypertension 1999;13(9):569‐592. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Sacks 2001
    1. Sacks FM, Svetkey LP, Vollmer WM, Appel LJ, Bray GA, Harsha D, Obarzanek E, Conlin PR, Miller ERI, Simons‐Morton DG, Karanja N, Lin P‐H, Aickin M, Most‐Windhauser MM, Moore TJ, Proschan MA, Cutler JA. Effects on blood pressure of reduced dietary sodium and the Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) diet. DASH‐Sodium Collaborative Research Group. New England Journal of Medicine 2001;344(1):3‐10. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Selmer 2000
    1. Selmer RM, Kristiansen IS, Haglerod A, Graff‐Iverson S, Larsen HK, Meyer HE, Bonaa KH, Thelle DS. Cost and health consequences of reducing the population intake of salt. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 2000;54(9):697‐702. [MEDLINE: ] - PMC - PubMed
Sharp 1998
    1. Sharp S. Meta‐analysis regression. Stata Technical Bulletin 1998;42:16‐22. [ISBN 1‐881228‐31‐2]
Singhal 2001
    1. Singhal A, Cole TJ, Lucas A. Early nutrition in preterm infants and later blood pressure: two cohorts after randomised trials. Lancet 2001;357(9254):413‐419. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Stamler 1991
    1. Stamler R. Implications of the INTERSALT study. Hypertension 1991;17(1 suppl):I 16‐I 20. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Taubes 1998
    1. Taubes G. The (political) science of salt. Science 1998;281(5379):898‐907. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Tunstall‐Pedoe 1997
    1. Tunstall‐Pedoe H, Woodward M, Tavendale R, A'Brook R, McCluskey MK. Comparison of the prediction by 27 different factors of coronary heart disease and death in men and women of the Scottish heart health study: cohort study. [erratum appears in BMJ 1998 Jun 20;316(7148):1881.].. BMJ 1997;315(7110):722‐729. [MEDLINE: ] - PMC - PubMed
Tuomilehto 2001
    1. Tuomilehto J, Jousilahti P, Rastenyte D, Moltchanov V, Tanskanen A, Pietinen P, Nissinen A. Urinary sodium excretion and cardiovascular mortality in Finland: a prospective study. Lancet 2001;357(9259):848‐851. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Whelton 1997
    1. Whelton PK, He J, Cutler JA, Brancati FL, Appel LJ, Follmann D, Klag MJ. Effects of oral potassium on blood pressure. Meta‐analysis of randomized controlled clinical trials. Journal of the American Medical Association 1997;277(20):1624‐1632. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed

References to other published versions of this review

Hooper 2002
    1. Hooper L, Bartlett C, Davey Smith G, Ebrahim S. Longer electronic version of this review on BMJ website, http://bmj.com/ [Systematic review of long term effects of advice to reduce dietary salt in adults]. British Medical Journal 2002;325(7365):628‐632. [EMBASE Accession Number is 2002347601] - PMC - PubMed

MeSH terms

Substances