Skip to main page content
U.S. flag

An official website of the United States government

Dot gov

The .gov means it’s official.
Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

Https

The site is secure.
The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

Access keys NCBI Homepage MyNCBI Homepage Main Content Main Navigation
. 2004;2004(2):CD002801.
doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD002801.pub2.

Habit retraining for the management of urinary incontinence in adults

J Ostaszkiewicz  1 , L Johnston, B Roe
Affiliations

Habit retraining for the management of urinary incontinence in adults

J Ostaszkiewicz et al. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2004.

Abstract

Background: Habit retraining is toileting assistance given by a caregiver to adults with urinary incontinence. It involves the identification of an incontinent person's natural voiding pattern and the development of an individualised toileting schedule which pre-empts involuntary bladder emptying.

Objectives: To assess the effects of habit retraining for the management of urinary incontinence in adults.

Search strategy: We searched the Cochrane Incontinence Group specialised register (9 May 2002), MEDLINE (January 1966 to December 2002), EMBASE (January 1980 to Week 18 2002), CINAHL (January 1982 to February 2001), PsycINFO (January 1972 to current), Biological Abstracts (January 1980 to December 2000), Current Contents (January 1993 to December 2001) and the reference lists of relevant articles. We also contacted experts in the field, searched relevant websites and hand searched journals and conference proceedings.

Selection criteria: All randomised or quasi-randomised controlled trials comparing habit retraining delivered either alone or in conjunction with another intervention for urinary incontinence in adults.

Data collection and analysis: Data extraction and quality assessment were undertaken by at least two people working independently of each other. Any differences were resolved by discussion. The relative risks for dichotomous data were calculated with 95% confidence intervals. Where data were insufficient for a quantitative analysis, a narrative overview was undertaken.

Main results: Three trials with a total of 337 participants met the inclusion criteria, describing habit retraining combined with other approaches compared with usual care. Participants were primarily care-dependent elderly women with concurrent cognitive and/or physical impairment, residing in either a residential aged-care facility or in their own home. Outcomes included incidence and/or severity of urinary incontinence, the prevalences of urinary tract infection, skin rash and skin breakdown, cost and caregiver preparedness, role strain and burden. Caregivers found it difficult to maintain voiding records and to implement the toileting program. A 61% compliance rate was reported in one trial. There were no statistically significant differences in the incidence and in the volume of incontinence between groups. Within group analyses did however show improvements on these measures. Reductions were also reported for the intervention group in one study for skin rash, skin breakdown and in caregivers' perceptions of their level of stress. Descriptive data on the intervention suggests that habit retraining is a labour-intense activity. Electronic loggers, used as an adjunct to caregiver-delivered wet/dry checks, were reported as providing more accurate data than that from caregiver conducted wet/dry checks. To date, no analysis of the time and resources associated with these comparisons is available.

Reviewers' conclusions: Data on habit retraining are few and of insufficient quality to provide a firm basis for practice.

PubMed Disclaimer

Conflict of interest statement

None known.

Update of

References

References to studies included in this review

Colling 1992 {published data only}
    1. Colling J, Ouslander J, Hadley BJ, Eisch J, Campbell E. The effects of patterned urge‐response toileting (PURT) on urinary incontinence among nursing home residents. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society 1992;40(2):135‐41. [220] - PubMed
Colling 2003 {published and unpublished data}
    1. Colling J, Owen TR, McCreedy M, Newman D. The effects of a continence program on frail community‐dwelling elderly persons. Urologic Nursing 2003;23(2):117‐22, 127‐31. [19778] - PubMed
Jirovec 2001 {published data only}
    1. Jirovec MM, Templin T. Predicting success using individualized scheduled toileting for memory‐impaired elders at home. Research in Nursing & Health 2001;24(1):1‐8. [12463] - PubMed
Nikoletti 2004 {published data only}
    1. Nikoletti S, Young J, King M. A randomised, controlled trial to compare electronic monitoring with the standard procedure for managing urinary incontinence in an acute care setting. National Continence Management Strategy, Department of Health and Ageing, Australian Government YR:2003. Australia: National Continence Management Strategy, Department of Health and Ageing, Australian Government. [20999]
    1. Nikoletti S, Young J, King M. Evaluation of an electronic monitoring device for urinary incontinence in elderly patients in an acute care setting. Journal of WOCN 2004;31(3):138‐49. [20997] - PubMed

References to studies excluded from this review

Baigis‐Smith 1989 {published data only}
    1. Baigis‐Smith J, Smith DA, Rose M, Newman DK. Managing urinary incontinence in community‐residing elderly persons. The Gerontologist 1989;29(2):229‐33. - PubMed
Borrie 2002 {published data only}
    1. Borrie MJ, Bawden M, Speechley M, Kloseck M. Interventions led by nurse continence advisers in the management of urinary incontinence: a randomized controlled trial. CMAJ: Canadian Medical Association Journal 14‐5‐2002;166(10):1267‐73. [14664] - PMC - PubMed
Burgio 1985 {published data only}
    1. Burgio KL, Whitehead WE, Engel BT. Urinary incontinence in the elderly. Bladder‐sphincter biofeedback and toileting skills training. Annals of Internal Medicine 1985;103(4):507‐15. - PubMed
Burgio 1989 {published data only}
    1. Burgio KL, Suttzman RE, Engel BT. Behavioral training for post‐prostatectomy urinary incontinence. Journal of Urology 1989;141:303‐6. - PubMed
Burgio 1994 {published data only}
    1. Burgio KL, McCormick KA, Scheve AS, Engel BT, Hawkins A, Leahy E. The effects of changing prompted voiding schedule in the treatment of incontinence in nursing home residents. Journal of The American Geriatrics Society 1994;42(3):315‐20. - PubMed
Burgio 1998 {published data only}
    1. Burgio KL, Locher JL, Goode PS, Hardin JM, McDowell BJ, Dobrowski M, et al. Behavioral vs drug treatment for urge urinary incontinence in older women: a randomised controlled trial. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society 1998;280(23):1995‐2000. - PubMed
Carpenter 1960 {published data only}
    1. Carpenter HA, Simon R. The effect of several methods of training on long‐term, incontinent behaviorally regressed hospitalized psychiatric patients. Nursing Research 1960;9(1):17‐22. - PubMed
Castleden 1986 {published data only}
    1. Castleden CM, Duffin HM, Gulati RS. Double‐blind study of imipramine and placebo for incontinence due to bladder instability. Age & Ageing 1986;15(5):299‐303. - PubMed
Chanfreau‐Rona 1984 {published data only}
    1. Chanfreau‐Rona D, Bellwood S, Wylie B. Assessment of a behavioural programme to treat incontinent patients in psychogeriatric wards. British Journal of Clinical Psychology 1984;23(4):273‐9. - PubMed
Chanfreau‐Rona 1986 {published data only}
    1. Chanfreau‐Rona D, Wylie B, Bellwood S. Behaviour treatment of daytime incontinence in elderly male and female patients. Behavioural Psychotherapy 1986;14(1):13‐20.
Colombo 1995 {published data only}
    1. Colombo M, Zanetta G, Scalambrino S, Milani R. Oxybutynin and bladder training in the management of female urinary urge incontinence: A randomised study. International Urogynecology Journal and Pelvic Floor Dysfunction 1995;6:63‐7.
Engberg 1997 {published data only}
    1. Engberg S, McDowell BJ, Donovan N, Brodak I, Weber E. Treatment of urinary incontinence in homebound older adults: Interface between research and practice. Ostomy Wound Management 1997;43(10):18‐22, 24‐6. - PubMed
    1. Engberg S, McDowell BJ, Weber E, Brodak I, Donovan N, Engberg R. Assessment and management of urinary incontinence amongst homebound older adults: A clinical trial protocol. Advanced Practice Nursing Quarterly 1997;3(2):48‐56. - PubMed
Engberg 2002 {published data only}
    1. Engberg S, Sereika SM, McDowell J, Weber E, Brodak I. Effectiveness of prompted voiding in treating urinary incontinence in cognitively impaired homebound older adults. Journal of Wound Ostomy and Continence Nursing 2002;29(5):252‐65. - PubMed
Engel 1990 {published data only}
    1. Engel BT, Burgio LD, McCormick KA, Hawking AM, Scheve AAS, Leahy E. Behavioral treatment of incontinence in the long‐term care settings. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society 1990;38:361‐3. - PubMed
Fantl 1991 {published data only}
    1. Fantl JA, Wyman JF, McClish DK, Harkins SW, Elswick RK, Taylor JR, et al. Efficacy of bladder training in older women with urinary incontinence. Journal of the American Medical Association 1991;265(5):609‐13. - PubMed
Fonda 1994 {published data only}
    1. Fonda D, Woodward M, D'Astoli M, Chin WF. The continued success of conservative management for established urinary incontinence in older people. Australian Journal on Ageing 1994;13(1):12‐6.
Gaitsgori 1998 {published data only}
    1. Gaitsgori Y, Gruenwald I, Zarmi S, Michalak R. Individual timed voiding as a long term treatment modality for demented patients in nursing homes. Neurourology and Urodynamics. Wiley‐Liss, 28th Annual Meeting of The International Continence Society, 1998, Jerusalem, Israel.
Goode 2002 {published data only}
    1. Goode PS, Burgio KL, Locher JL, Umlauf MG, Lloyd LK, Roth DL. Urodynamic changes associated with behavioral and drug treatment of urge incontinence in older women. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society 2002;50(5):808‐16. [14678] - PubMed
Grosicki 1968 {published data only}
    1. Grosicki JP. Effect of operant conditioning on incontinence in neuropsychiatric geriatric patients. Nursing Research 1968;17:304‐11. - PubMed
Hu 1988 {published data only}
    1. Hu TW, Igou JF, Kaltreider DL, Yu LC, Rohner RJ. Cost effectiveness of training incontinent elderly in nursing homes: A randomized clinical trial. Health Services Research 1990;25(3):455‐7. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Hu TW, Igou JF, Kaltreider DL, Yu LC, Rohner RJ, Dennis PJ, et al. Behavioral therapy for urinary incontinence in nursing homes. Advances: Insititute for the Advancement of Health 1989;6(3):11‐4.
    1. Hu TW, Igou JF, Kaltreider DL, Yu LC, Rohner TJ, Dennis PJ, et al. A clinical trial of a behavioral therapy to reduce urinary incontinence in nursing homes. JAMA 1989;261(18):2656‐62. - PubMed
    1. Hu TW, Igou JF, Kaltreider DL, Yu LC, Rohner TJ, Dennis PJ, et al. A clinical trial of a behavioural therapy to reduce urinary incontinence in nursing homes. Neurourology & Urodynamics 1988;7(3):279‐80. - PubMed
Jarvis 1980 {published data only}
    1. Jarvis GJ. Controlled trial of bladder drill for detrusor instability. British Medical Journal 1980;281:132‐3. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Jarvis GJ, Millar DR. The treatment of incontinence due to detrusor instability by bladder drill. Progress in Clinical and Biological Research 1981;78:341‐3. - PubMed
Jarvis 1981 {published data only}
    1. Jarvis GJ. A controlled trial of bladder drill and drug therapy in the management of detrusor instability. British Journal of Urology 1981;53:565‐6. - PubMed
Jarvis 1982 {published data only}
    1. Jarvis GJ. The management of urinary incontinence due to primary vesical sensory urgency by bladder drill. British Journal of Urology 1981;54:374‐6. - PubMed
Jilek 1993 {published data only}
    1. Jilek R. Elderly toileting: is two hourly too often?. Nursing Standard 1993;7(47):25‐6. - PubMed
Jirovec 1991 {published data only}
    1. Jirovec MM. Effect of individualized prompted toileting on incontinence in nursing home residents. Applied Nursing Research 1991;4:188‐91. - PubMed
Johnson 2005 {published data only}
    1. Johnson TM, Burgio KL, Redden DT, Wright KC, Goode PS. Effects of behavioral and drug therapy on nocturia in older incontinent women. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society 2005;53(5):846‐50. [20349] - PubMed
King 1980 {published data only}
    1. King MR. Treatment of incontinence. Nursing Times 1980;6:1006‐10. - PubMed
Kirkpatrick 1987 {published data only}
    1. Kirkpatrick MK, Davies C. A bladder retraining program in a long‐term care facility. Nursing Homes 1987;July/August:29‐31.
Lagro‐Janssen 1992 {published data only}
    1. Lagro‐Janssen ALM, Deyruyne FMJ, Smits AJA, Weel C. The effects of treatment of urinary incontinence in general practice. Family Practice 1992;9(3):284‐9. - PubMed
Lekan‐Rutledge 1992 {published data only}
    1. Lekan‐Rutledge D, Hogue CC, Miller J. Prompted voiding in the nursing home: effect of clinical and staff management protocols. The Gerontologist 1992;32:162‐3.
McCormick 1992 {published data only}
    1. McCormick KA, Burgio LD, Engel BT, Scheve A, Leahy E. Urinary incontinence: an augmented prompted void approach. Journal of Gerontological Nursing 1992;18(3):3‐10. - PubMed
McCormick 1990 {published data only}
    1. McCormick KA, Cella M, Scheve A, Engel BT. Cost‐effectiveness of treating incontinence in severely mobility‐impaired long‐term care residents. Quality Review Bulletin 1990;16(2):439‐43. - PubMed
McDowell 1992 {published data only}
    1. McDowell BJ, Dombrowski M, Vaccari KM, Craig RL, Rodriguez E, Burgio KL. Behavioral treatment of urinary incontinence in patients with dementia of the Alzheimer's type. Gerontologist 1992;32:163.
O'Brien 1991 {published data only}
    1. O'Brien J, Austin M, Sethi P, O'Boyle P. Urinary incontinence: prevalence, need for treatment and effectiveness of intervention by nurse. British Medical Journal 1991;303(6813):1308‐12. - PMC - PubMed
Ouslander 1988 {published data only}
    1. Ouslander JG, Blaustein J, Connor A, Pitt A. Habit training and oxybutinin for incontinence in functionally disabled nursing home patients with detrusor hyperreflexia: a placebo controlled trial. Proceedings of the International Continence Society (ICS) 1987:153‐4. [9036]
    1. Ouslander JG, Blaustein J, Connor A, Pitt A. Habit training and oxybutynin for incontinence in nursing home patients: a placebo‐controlled trial. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society 1988;36(1):40‐6. [509] - PubMed
Ouslander 1995 {published data only}
    1. Ouslander JG, Schnelle JF, Uman G, Fingold S, Nigam JG, Tuico E, et al. Does oxybutynin add to the effectiveness of prompted voiding for urinary incontinence among nursing home residents? A placebo‐controlled trial. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society 1995;43(6):610‐7. - PubMed
Palmer 1994 {published data only}
    1. Palmer MH, Bennett RG, Marks J, McCormick KA, Engel BT. Urinary incontinence: a program that works. Journal of Long Term Care Administration 1994;22(2):19‐25. - PubMed
Proctor 1999 {published data only}
    1. Proctor R, Burns A, Powell HS, Tarrier N, Faragher B, Richardson G, et al. Behavioural management in nursing and residential homes: a randomised controlled trial. The Lancet 1999;354(9172):26‐9. - PubMed
Ramsay 1996 {published data only}
    1. Ramsay IN, Ali HM, Hunter M, Start K, McKenzie S, Donaldson K, et al. A prospective randomised controlled trial of inpatient versus outpatient continence programs in the treatment of urinary incontinence in the female. International Urogynecology Journal and Pelvic Floor Dysfunction 1996;7(6):260‐3. - PubMed
Saltmarche 1991 {published data only}
    1. Saltmarche A, Pringle D, Reid DW, Zorzitto M. Habit retraining: an incontinence study that leaked. Neurourology and Urodynamics 1991;10(4):413‐4. [4657]
Schnelle 1983 {published data only}
    1. Schnelle JF, Traughber B, Morgan DB, Embry JE, Binion AF, Coleman A. Management of geriatric incontinence in nursing homes. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis 1983;16(2):235‐41. - PMC - PubMed
Schnelle 1988 {published data only}
    1. Schnelle JF, Sowell VA, Hu TW, Traughber B. Reduction of urinary incontinence in nursing homes: does it reduce or increase costs?. Journal of the Geriatrics Society 1988;36:34‐9. - PubMed
Schnelle 1989,1990a {published data only}
    1. Schnelle JF. Treatment of urinary incontinence in nursing homes by prompted voiding. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society 1990;38:356‐60. - PubMed
    1. Schnelle JF, Traughber B, Sowell VA, Newman DR, Petrilli CO, Ory M. Prompted voiding treatment of urinary incontinence in nursing home patients: A behavior management approach for nursing home staff. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society 1989;37:1051‐7. - PubMed
Schnelle 1990b {published data only}
    1. Schnelle JF, Newman DR, Fogarty R. Management of patient continence in long‐term care nursing facilities. The Gerontologist 1990;30(3):373‐6. - PubMed
Schnelle 1991 {published data only}
    1. Schnelle JF, Newman DR, Fogarty TE, Wallston K, Ory M. Assessment and quality control of incontinence care in long‐term nursing facilities. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society 1991;39:165‐71. - PubMed
Schnelle 1993 {published data only}
    1. Schnelle JF, Newman D, White M, Abbey J, Wallston KA, Fogarty T, et al. Maintaining continence in nursing home residents through the application of industrial quality control. The Gerontologist 1993;33(1):114‐21. - PubMed
Schnelle 1995 {published data only}
    1. Schnelle JF, MacRae PG, Ouslander JG, Simmons SF, Nitta M. Functional incidental training, mobility performance and incontinence care with nursing home residents. Journal of The American Geriatrics Society 1995;43(12):1356‐62. - PubMed
Smith 1992 {published data only}
    1. Smith DA, Newman DK, McDowell BJ, Burgio LD. Reduction of incontinence among elderly in a nursing home setting. In: Funk SG, Tornquist EM, Champagne MT, Weise RA editor(s). Key aspects of elder care: Managing falls, incontinence and cognitive impairment. Springer Publishing Co, 1992:196‐204.
Snape 1989 {published data only}
    1. Snape J, Castleden CM, Duffin HM, Ekelund P. Long‐term follow‐up of habit retraining for bladder instability in elderly patients. Age & Ageing 1989;18(3):192‐4. - PubMed
Sogbein 1982 {published data only}
    1. Sogbein SK, Awad SA. Behavioural treatment of urinary incontinence in geriatric patients. Canadian Medical Association 1982;127(9):863‐4. - PMC - PubMed
Sowell 1987 {published data only}
    1. Sowell VA, Schnelle JF, Hu TW, Traughber B. A cost comparison of five methods of managing urinary incontinence. Quality Review Bulletin 1987;13(12):411‐4. - PubMed
Spangler 1984 {published data only}
    1. Spangler PF, Risley TR, Bilyew DD. The management of dehydration and incontinence in nonambulatory geriatric patients. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis 1984;17(3):397‐401. - PMC - PubMed
Subak 2002 {published data only}
    1. Subak LL, Quesenberry CP, Posner SF, Cattolica E, Soghikian K. The effect of behavioral therapy on urinary incontinence: A randomized controlled trial. The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists 2002;100(1):72‐8. - PubMed
Surdy 1992 {published data only}
    1. Surdy TM. Rehabilitation of urinary incontinent nursing home patients. Unpublished doctoral thesis, The University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee 1992.
Szonyi 1995 {published data only}
    1. Szonyi G, Collas DM, Ding YY, Malone‐Lee JG. Oxybutynin with bladder retraining for detrusor instability in elderly people: a randomised controlled trial. Age and Ageing 1995;24(4):287‐91. - PubMed
Tobin 1986 {published data only}
    1. Tobin GW, Brocklehurst JC. The management of urinary incontinence in local authority residential homes for the elderly. Age and Ageing 1986;15:292‐8. - PubMed
Wilder 1997 {published data only}
    1. Wilder DA, Higbee TS, Williams WL, Nachtwey A. A simplified method of toilet training adults in residential settings. Journal of Behavioral Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry 1997;28(3):241‐6. - PubMed
Williams 2005 {published data only}
    1. Williams KS, Assassa RP, Cooper NJ, Turner DA, Shaw C, Abrams KR, Mayne C, Jagger C, Matthews R, Clarke M, McGrother CW, The Leicestershire MRC Incontinence Study Team. Clinical and cost‐effectiveness of a new nurse‐led continence service: a randomised controlled trial. British Journal of General Practice 2005;55(518):696‐703. [21313] - PMC - PubMed
Wiseman 1991 {published data only}
    1. Wiseman PA, Malone‐Lee J, Rai GS. Terodiline with bladder retraining for treating detrusor instability in elderly people. British Medical Journal 1991;302(6783):994‐6. - PMC - PubMed
Wyman 1997 {published data only}
    1. Wyman JF, Fantl JA, McClish DK, Harkins SW, Uebersax JS, Ory MG. Quality of life following bladder training in older women with urinary incontinence. International Urogynecology Journal of Pelvic Floor Dysfunction 1997;8(4):223‐9. - PubMed
Wyman 1998 {published data only}
    1. Wyman JF, Fantl JA, McClish DK, Bump RC, The Continence Program for Women Research Group. Comparative efficacy of behavioral interventions in the management of female urinary incontinence. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 1998;179(4):999‐1007. - PubMed

Additional references

Borrie 1992
    1. Borrie MJ, Davidson HA. Incontinence in institutions: cost and contributing factors. Canadian Medical Association Journal 1992;147(3):322‐8. [MEDLINE: ] - PMC - PubMed
Brandeis 1997
    1. Brandeis GH, Baumann MM, Hossain M, Morris JN, Resnick NM. The prevalence of potentially remediable urinary incontinence in frail older people: a study using the Minimum Data Set. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society 1997;45(2):179‐84. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Button 1998
    1. Button D, Roe B, Webb C, Frith R, Colin‐Thome D, Gardner L. Consensus guidelines for the promotion and management of continence by primary health care teams: development, implementation and evaluation. Journal of Advanced Nursing. Vol. 85, London: Whurr Publishing, 1998:91‐9. - PubMed
Clay 1978
    1. Clay EC. Incontinence of urine. Nursing Mirror 1978;146(10):36‐8. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Cummings 1995
    1. Cummings V, Holt R, Sloot C, Moore K, Griffiths D. Costs and management of urinary incontinence in long‐term care. Journal of Wound Ostomy and Continence Nursing 1995;22(4):193‐8. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
DuBeau 1999
    1. DuBeau CE, Simon S, Morris JN. The impact of urinary incontinence and changing continence status on quality of life in nursing home residents [abstract]. Neurourology and Urodynamics 1999;18(4):389‐90.
Eustice 2000
    1. Eustice S, Roe B, Paterson J. Prompted voiding for the management of urinary incontinence in adults. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2000, Issue 2. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD002113; CD002113] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Fader 2007
    1. Fader M, Cottenden AM, Getliffe K. Absorbent products for light urinary incontinence in women. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2007, Issue 2. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD001406.pub2; CD001406] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Fader 2008
    1. Fader M, Cottenden AM, Getliffe K. Absorbent products for moderate‐heavy urinary and/or faecal incontinence in women and men. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2008, Issue 4. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD007408; CD007408] - DOI - PubMed
Fantl 1996
    1. Fantl JA, Newman DK, Colling J, DeLancey JOL, Keeys C, Loughery R, et al. In: Agency for Health Care Policy and Research, editor(s). Urinary incontinence in adults: acute and chronic management. Clinical practice guideline. No 2, 1996 Update. Rockville, MD: US Department of Health and Human Services. Public Health Service, Agency for Health Care Policy and Research, 1996.
Hadley 1986
    1. Hadley EC. Bladder training and related therapies for urinary incontinence in older people. Journal of the American Medical Association 1986;256(3):372‐9. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Hay‐Smith 2006
    1. Hay‐Smith J, Dumoulin C. Pelvic floor muscle training versus no treatment, or inactive control treatments, for urinary incontinence in women. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2006, Issue 1. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD005654; CD005654] - DOI - PubMed
Higgins 2005
    1. Higgins JPT, Green S, editors. Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions 4.2.5 [updated May 2005]. www.cochrane.org/resources/handbook/hbook.htm (accessed 13 March 2007).
Hu 1986
    1. Hu WT. The economic impact of urinary incontinence. Clinics in Geriatric Medicine 1986;2(4):673‐87. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Ostaszkiewicz 2004
    1. Ostaszkiewicz J, Johnston L, Roe B. Timed voiding for the management of urinary incontinence in adults. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2004, Issue 1. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD002802.pub2; CD002802] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Ouslander 1984
    1. Ouslander JG, Kane RL. The costs of urinary incontinence in nursing homes. Medical Care 1984;22(1):69‐79. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Ouslander 1985
    1. Ouslander JG, Fowler E. Management of urinary incontinence in veteran administration nursing homes. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society 1985;33(1):33‐40. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
RevMan 4.2 [Computer program]
    1. The Nordic Cochrane Centre, The Cochrane Collaboration. Review Manager (RevMan). Version 4.2 for Windows. Copenhagen: The Nordic Cochrane Centre, The Cochrane Collaboration, 2003.
Robinson 2000
    1. Robinson JP. Managing urinary incontinence in the nursing home: residents' perspectives. Journal of Advanced Nursing 2000;31(1):68‐77. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Schnelle 1998
    1. Schnelle JF, Cruise PA, Rahman A, Ouslander JG. Developing rehabilitative behavioral interventions for long‐term care: technology transfer, acceptance, and maintenance issues. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society 1998;46(6):771‐7. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Thuroff 1999
    1. Thuroff JW, Abrams P, Artibani W, Haab F, Khoury S, Madersbacher H, et al. Clinical guidelines for the management of incontinence. In: Abrams P, Khoury S, Wein A editor(s). Incontinence: First International Consultation on Incontinence. Recommendations of the International Scientific Committee: the evaluation and treatment of urinary incontinence. Plymouth, UK: Health Publication Ltd, 1999:933‐43.
Wallace 2004
    1. Wallace SA, Roe B, Williams K, Palmer M. Bladder training for urinary incontinence in adults. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2004, Issue 1. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD001308.pub2; CD001308] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Ware 1993
    1. Ware JE. Measuring patients' views: the optimum outcome measure. BMJ 1993;306(6890):1429‐30. [MEDLINE: ] - PMC - PubMed
Yu 1987
    1. Yu LC, Kaltreider DL. Stressed nurses dealing with incontinent patients. Journal of Gerontological Nursing 1987;13(1):27‐30. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Yu 1991
    1. Yu LC, Johnson K, Kaltreider DL, Hu TW, Brannon D, Ory M. Urinary incontinence: nursing home staff reaction toward residents. Journal of Gerontological Nursing 1991;17(11):34‐41. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed

Publication types