Skip to main page content
U.S. flag

An official website of the United States government

Dot gov

The .gov means it’s official.
Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

Https

The site is secure.
The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

Access keys NCBI Homepage MyNCBI Homepage Main Content Main Navigation
Meta-Analysis
. 2005 Oct 19;2005(4):CD003272.
doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD003272.pub2.

Psychological interventions for children with asthma

J Yorke  1 , S Fleming, C Shuldham
Affiliations
Meta-Analysis

Psychological interventions for children with asthma

J Yorke et al. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. .

Abstract

Background: Asthma is a chronic disease of inflammation and smooth muscle dysfunction, including bronchoconstriction. These symptoms are usually associated with widespread but variable airflow obstruction that is often reversible either spontaneously or with treatment. Psychological factors may influence the symptoms and management of asthma in children in many ways, for example, evidence suggests that emotional stress can either precipitate or exacerbate both acute and chronic asthma.

Objectives: To assess the efficacy of psychological interventions in improving health and behavioural outcomes for children with asthma.

Search strategy: The Cochrane Airways Group Specialised Register and PsycINFO were searched with pre-defined terms up until March 2005.

Selection criteria: Randomised controlled trials published in any language assessing the effects of a psychological intervention compared with a control intervention in children and adolescents with asthma were included in the review. Cross-over trials were considered inappropriate for studies using psychological interventions and were therefore excluded from this systematic review.

Data collection and analysis: Two reviewers assessed the relevance of abstracts identified by electronic searching and retrieved agreed studies for further scrutiny. The studies that met the inclusion criteria were assembled and data extracted.

Main results: Twelve studies (588 children) were included in the review. Study quality was poor and sample sizes were frequently small. A meta-analysis was possible on two studies only examining the effects of relaxation therapy on PEFR which favoured the treatment group (32 L/min, 95% CI 13 to 50 L/min). No other meta-analysis could be performed due to the diversity of interventions and the outcomes assessed. In addition, many studies reported insufficient data.

Authors' conclusions: This review was unable to draw firm conclusions for the role of psychological interventions for children with asthma. This review demonstrates the absence of an adequate evidence base and highlights the need for well-conducted and reported randomised trials in this area.

PubMed Disclaimer

Conflict of interest statement

None known.

Figures

1.1
1.1. Analysis
Comparison 1 Psychological interventions versus control, Outcome 1 Hospital Admissions.
1.2
1.2. Analysis
Comparison 1 Psychological interventions versus control, Outcome 2 Emergency room visits.
1.3
1.3. Analysis
Comparison 1 Psychological interventions versus control, Outcome 3 Depression.
1.4
1.4. Analysis
Comparison 1 Psychological interventions versus control, Outcome 4 Number of asthma attacks.
1.5
1.5. Analysis
Comparison 1 Psychological interventions versus control, Outcome 5 Mean change in PEF.
1.6
1.6. Analysis
Comparison 1 Psychological interventions versus control, Outcome 6 Knowledge.
1.7
1.7. Analysis
Comparison 1 Psychological interventions versus control, Outcome 7 Mean number of asthma attacks (month).
1.8
1.8. Analysis
Comparison 1 Psychological interventions versus control, Outcome 8 Symptoms.
1.9
1.9. Analysis
Comparison 1 Psychological interventions versus control, Outcome 9 Increase in 'as needed' medication.
1.10
1.10. Analysis
Comparison 1 Psychological interventions versus control, Outcome 10 Mean change in rescue medication (puffs/month).
1.11
1.11. Analysis
Comparison 1 Psychological interventions versus control, Outcome 11 Change in rescue medication usage per day.
1.12
1.12. Analysis
Comparison 1 Psychological interventions versus control, Outcome 12 FEV1:FVC.
1.13
1.13. Analysis
Comparison 1 Psychological interventions versus control, Outcome 13 Am PEF (Litres/min ‐ absolute scores).
1.14
1.14. Analysis
Comparison 1 Psychological interventions versus control, Outcome 14 Pm PEF (Litres/min ‐ absolute scores).
1.15
1.15. Analysis
Comparison 1 Psychological interventions versus control, Outcome 15 FEV1 (Litres ‐ absolute scores).
1.16
1.16. Analysis
Comparison 1 Psychological interventions versus control, Outcome 16 Mean daytime asthmatic symptoms.
1.17
1.17. Analysis
Comparison 1 Psychological interventions versus control, Outcome 17 Days missed from school (per month).
1.18
1.18. Analysis
Comparison 1 Psychological interventions versus control, Outcome 18 Change of behaviour scale.
1.19
1.19. Analysis
Comparison 1 Psychological interventions versus control, Outcome 19 Self‐efficacy.
1.20
1.20. Analysis
Comparison 1 Psychological interventions versus control, Outcome 20 Coping.
1.21
1.21. Analysis
Comparison 1 Psychological interventions versus control, Outcome 21 Anxiety.
1.22
1.22. Analysis
Comparison 1 Psychological interventions versus control, Outcome 22 Mean night time asthma symptoms.
See this image and copyright information in PMC

Update of

  • doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD003272

Similar articles

See all similar articles

Cited by

See all "Cited by" articles

References

References to studies included in this review

Alexander 1972 {published data only}
    1. Alexander AB, Miklich DR, Hershoff H. The immediate effects of systematic relaxation training on peak expiratory flow rates in asthmatic children. Psychosomatic Medicine 1972;34(5):388‐94. - PubMed
Colland 1993 {published data only}
    1. Colland VT. Learning to cope with asthma: a behavioural self‐management program for children. Patient Education and Counseling 1993;22:141‐52. - PubMed
Dahl 1990 {published data only}
    1. Dahl J, Gustafsson D, Lennart M. Effects of a behavioural treatment program on children with asthma. Journal of Asthma 1990;27(1):41‐6. - PubMed
Hock 1978 {published data only}
    1. Hock RA, Rodgers CH, Reddi C, Kennard DW. Medico‐psychological interventions in male asthmatic children: an evaluation of physiological change. Psychosomatic Medicine 1978;40(3):210‐5. - PubMed
Hua‐Bin 2004 {published data only}
    1. Hua‐Bin Y, Yan‐Qing T, Zhu‐Wen Y. Effect of relaxation training on psychosomatic symptoms of children with asthma. Chinese Journal of Clinical Rehabilitation 2004;8(36):8392‐3.
Khan 1973 {published data only}
    1. Kahn AU, Staerk M, Bonk C. Role of counter‐conditioning in the treatment of asthma. The Journal of Asthma Research 1973;11(2):57‐62. - PubMed
Khan 1977 {published data only}
    1. Khan AU. Effectiveness of biofeedback and counter‐conditioning in the treatment of bronchial asthma. Journal of Psychosomatic research 1977;21:97‐104. - PubMed
Kohen 1996 {published data only}
    1. Kohen D. Relaxation / mental imagery (self‐hypnosis) for childhood asthma: behavioral outcomes in a prospective, controlled study. Australian Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis 1996;24(1):12‐28.
Kotses 1991 {published data only}
    1. Kotses H, Harver A, Segreto J, Glauss KD, Creer TL, Young GA. Long‐term effects of biofeedback induced facial relaxation on measures of asthma severity in children. Biofeedback and Self‐Regulation 1991;16(1):1‐21. - PubMed
Perez 1999 {published data only}
    1. Perez MG, Feldman L, Gaballero F. Effects of a self‐management educational program for the control of childhood asthma. Patient Education and Counselling 1999;36:47‐55. - PubMed
Perin 1992 {published data only}
    1. Perrin JM, Maclean WE, Gortmaker SL, Asher KN. Improving the psychological status of children with asthma: a randomised controlled trial. Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics 1992;13(4):241‐7. - PubMed
Weingarten 1985 {published data only}
    1. Weingarten MA, Goldberg J, Teperberg Y. A pilot study of the multidisciplinary management of childhood asthma in a family practice. Journal of Asthma 1985;22(5):261‐5. - PubMed

References to studies excluded from this review

Alaniz 1992 {published data only}
    1. Alaniz K. Self management behaviours of the preschool child diagnosed with asthma: curricular implications. Dissertation Abstracts International 1992;52(10):3509‐10.
Aleman 1992 {published data only}
    1. Aleman MS, Sanchex PA. An integrated approach to the psychological aspects of the asthmatic child [Un abordaje integral de los aspectos psicologicos del nino asmatico]. Allergol Et immunopathol 1992;20(6):240‐5. - PubMed
Alexander 1979 {published data only}
    1. Alexander AB, Gerd JA, Cropp, Chai H. Effects of relaxation training on pulmonary mechanics in children with asthma. Journal of Applied Behaviour Analysis 1979;12:27‐35. - PMC - PubMed
Andrews 1998 {published data only}
    1. Andrews L, Lokuge S, Sawyer M, Lillywhite L, Kennedy D, Martin J. The use of alternative therapies by children with asthma: a brief report. Journal Pediatric Child Health 1998;34:131‐4. - PubMed
Annett 1994 {published data only}
    1. Annett RD, Bender BG. Neuropsychological dysfunction in asthmatic children. Neuropsychology Review 1994;4(2):91‐113. - PubMed
Annett 2001 {published data only}
    1. Annett RD, Bender BG, Lapidus J, DuHamel TR. Predicting children's quality of life in an asthma clinical trial: what do children's reports tell us?. Journal of Peadiatrics 2001;139(6):854‐63. - PubMed
Aronoff 1975 {published data only}
    1. Aronoff GM, Arnoff S, Mayne T, Isenberg S. Hypnotherapy in the treatment of bronchial asthma. Annals of Allergy 1975;34:356‐62. - PubMed
Backman 1981 {published data only}
    1. Backman A, Haikonen P, Hirvonen E, Rasanen E, Ahti L, Palolampi E. Chronic asthma in children: a medico‐psychological approach. Psychiatria Fennica 1981;Suppl:85‐95.
Barrnett 1992 {published data only}
    1. Barnett TE, Fatis M, Sonnek D, Torvinen J. Treatment satisfaction with an asthma management programme: a five year retrospective assessment. Journal of Asthma 1992;29(2):109‐16. - PubMed
Bender 2000 {published data only}
    1. Bender BG, Annet RD, Ikle D, DuHamel TR, Rand C, Strunk RC. Relationship between disease and psychological adaption in children in the childhood asthma program and their families. Archives Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine 2000;154:706‐13. - PubMed
Burkhart 1996 {published data only}
    1. Burkhart PV. Effect of contingency management on adherence to peak flow monitoring in school‐age children with asthma [dissertation]. Pittsburgh (PA): Univ. of Pittsburgh, 1996.
Burkhart 2005 {published data only}
    1. Burkhart PV, Rayens MK. Self‐concept and health locus of control: factor related to children's adherence to recommended asthma regimen. Pediatric Nursing 2005;31(5):404‐9. - PubMed
Chernoff 2002 {published data only}
    1. Chernoff RG, Ireys HT, DeVe A, Young K.J. A randomised controlled trial of a community based support program for families of children with chronic illness pediatric outcomes. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine 2002;156(6):533‐9. - PubMed
Clark 1988 {published data only}
    1. Clark NM, Rosenstock IM, Hassan H, Evans D, Wasilewski Y, Feldman, et al. The effects of health beliefs and feelings of self‐efficacy on self‐management behavior of children with chronic disease. Patient Education and Counselling 1988;11:131‐9.
Coen 1996 {published data only}
    1. Coen BL, Conran PB, McGrady A, Nelson L. Effects of biofeedback assisted relaxation on asthma severity and immune function. Pediatric Asthma, Allergy and Immunolgy 1996;10(2):71‐8.
Cooper 1964 {published data only}
    1. Cooper AJ. A case of bronchial asthma treated by behaviour therapy. Behavioral Research 1964;1:351‐6.
Corley 1987 {published data only}
    1. Corley DL, Gevirtz R, Nideffer R, Cummins L. Prevention of host infections in asthma in children by reducing self inoculatory behavior. Journal of Pediatric Psychology 1987;12(4):519‐31. - PubMed
Creer 1971 {published data only}
    1. Creer T, Yoches C. The modification of an inappropriate behavioural pattern in asthmatic children. Journal of Chronic Disease 1971;24:507‐13. - PubMed
Creer 1979 {published data only}
    1. Creer Tl, Burns KL. Self‐management training for children with chronic bronchial asthma. Procedings 12th European Conference of Psychosomatic Research. 1978; Vol. 32:270‐8. - PubMed
Creer 1980 {published data only}
    1. Creer TL. Self‐managemant behavioral strategies for asthmatics. Behavioral Medicine 1980:14‐24.
Creer 1988 {published data only}
    1. Creer TL, Backial M, Burns KL, Leung P, Marion RJ, Milklich DR, et al. Living with asthma ‐ genesis and development of a self management program for childhood asthma. Journal of asthma 1988;25(6):335‐62. - PubMed
Dekker 1957 {published data only}
    1. Dekker E, Pelser HE, Groen J. Conditioning as a cause of asthmatic attacks. Psychosomatic Research 1957;2:97‐108. - PubMed
Diamond 1959 {published data only}
    1. Diamond HH. Hypnosis in children: the complete cure of forty cases of asthma. American Journal Clinical Hypnosis 1959:124‐9.
Ernst 1998 {published data only}
    1. Ernst E. Commentary of study 'Massage therapy is promising for childhood asthma'. Focus on Alternative and Complementary Therapies 1998;132:854‐8.
Erskine 1979 {published data only}
    1. Erskine S. Relaxation therapy in bronchial asthma. Journal of Psychosomatic Research 1979;23:131‐9. - PubMed
Feldman 1976 {published data only}
    1. Feldman GM. The effect of biofeedback training on respiratory resistance of asthmatic children. Psychosomatic Medicine 1976;38:27‐37. - PubMed
Fernandez 1993 {published data only}
    1. Fernandez O. Hypnosis: its use in acute asthma attacks of bronchial asthma. Hypnosis 1993;20(4):236‐45.
Field 1995 {published data only}
    1. Field T. Massage therapy for infants and children. Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics 1995;16(2):105‐11. - PubMed
Field 1998 {published data only}
    1. Field T, Henteleff T, Hernandez‐Reif M, Martinez E, Mavunda K, Kubn C, et al. Children with asthma have improved pulmonary functions after massage therapy. Journal of Pediatrics 1998;132(5):854‐60. - PubMed
Florin 1985 {published data only}
    1. Florin I, Freudenberg G. Facial expressions of emotion and physiologic reactions in children with bronchial asthma. Psychosomatic Medicine 1985;47:382‐93. - PubMed
Gardner 1968 {published data only}
    1. Gardner JE. A blending of behavior therapy techniques in an approach to an asthmatic child. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice 1968;5(1):46‐9.
Gebert 1998 {published data only}
    1. Gebert N, Hummelink R, Koning J, Staab D, Schmidt S, Szczepanski R, et al. Efficacy of a self management program for childhood asthma‐ a prospective controlled study. Patient Education and Counselling 1998;35:213‐20. - PubMed
Gustafsson 1986 {published data only}
    1. Gustafsson PA, Biellman NM, Cederblad M. Family therapy in the treatment of severe childhood asthma. Journal of Psychosomatic Research 1986;30(3):369‐74. - PubMed
Hochstadt 1980 {published data only}
    1. Hochstadt N. Reducing hospitalisations of children with asthma. Journal of Pediatrics 1980;97:1012‐5. - PubMed
Hock 1977 {published data only}
    1. Hock RA, Bramble J, Kennard DW. A comparison between relaxation and assertive training with asthmatic male children. Biological Psychiatry 1977;12(4):593‐7. - PubMed
Hockemeyer 2002 {published data only}
    1. Hockemeyer J, Smyth J. Evaluating the feasibility and efficacy of a self administered manual‐based stress management intervention for individuals with asthma. Behavioral Medicine 2002;27:161‐72. - PubMed
Holzheimer 1998 {published data only}
    1. Holzheimer L, Mohay H, Masters IB. Educating young children about asthma: comparing the effectiveness of a developmentally appropriate asthma education video tape and picture book. Child: Care, Health and Develoment 1998;24(1):85‐99. - PubMed
Horton 1978 {published data only}
    1. Horton DJ, Suda WL. Bronchoconstrictive suggestion in asthma: a role for airways hyperactivity and emotions. American Review of Respiratory Disease 1978;117:1029‐38. - PubMed
Huhes 1991 {published data only}
    1. Huges DM, McLeod B. Controlled trial of a home and ambulatory program for asthmatic children. Pediatrics 1991;87(1):54‐61. - PubMed
Janson 1994 {published data only}
    1. Janson C, Bjornsson E. Anxiety and depression relation to respiratory symptoms and asthma. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine 1994;149:930‐4. - PubMed
Kashani 1988 {published data only}
    1. Kashani JH, Konig P, Shepperd JA, Wilfley D, Morris DA. Psychopathology and self‐concept in asthmatic children. Journal of Pediatric Psychology 1988;13(4):509‐20. - PubMed
Kern‐Buell 2000 {published data only}
    1. Kern‐Buell CL, McGrady AV, Conran PB, Nelson LA. Asthma severity, psychophysiological indicators of arousal, and immune function in asthma patients undergoing biofeedback‐assisted relaxation. Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback 2000;25(2):79‐91. - PubMed
Klinnert 2000 {published data only}
    1. Klinnert MD, McQuaid EL. A multi method assessment of behavioral and emotional adjustment in children with asthma. Journal of Pediatric Psychology 2000;25:35‐46. - PubMed
Kohen 1984 {published data only}
    1. Kohen DP, Olness KN, Colwell SO, Heimel A. The use of relaxation‐mental imagery in the management of 505 pediatric behavioral encounters. Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics 1984;5(1):21‐5. - PubMed
Kohen 1986 {published data only}
    1. Kohen DP. Applications of relaxation/mental imagery (self hypnosis) in pediatric emergencies. The International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis 1986;34(4):283‐94. - PubMed
Kohen 1995 {published data only}
    1. Kohen D. Relaxation/mental imagery (self‐hypnosis) for childhood asthma: behavioral outcomes in as prospective controlled study. Hypnosis 1995;22(3):132‐44.
Kohen 1997 {published data only}
    1. Kohen DP, Wynne E. Applying hypnosis in a preschool family asthma education program: Uses of storytelling, imagery and relaxation. American Journal of Hypnosis 1997;39(3):169‐81. - PubMed
Kotses 1976 {published data only}
    1. Kotses H, Glaus KD, Crawford PL, Edwards JE, Scherr MS. Operant reduction of frontalis EMG activity in the treatment of asthmatic children. Journal of psychosomatic Research 1976;20:453‐9. - PubMed
Kotses 1978 {published data only}
    1. Kotses H, Glaus KD, Stanley K, Bricel K, Edwards JE, Crawford PL. Operant muscular relaxation and peak expiratory flow rate in asthmatic children. Journal of Psychosomatic Research 1978;22:17‐23. - PubMed
Larsson 1992 {published data only}
    1. Larsson B. Behavioural treatment of somatic disorders in children and adolescents. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 1992;1(2):68‐81. - PubMed
Lask 1979 {published data only}
    1. Lask B, Mathew D. Childhood asthma: a controlled trial of family psychotherapy. Archives of Disease in Childhhood 1979;54:116‐9. - PMC - PubMed
LaVelle 1998 {published data only}
    1. LaVelle EAE. Effects of music and massage on dyspnea and peak expiratory flow rate in children with asthma receiving routine beta‐adreneric nebulisations [Dissertation]. University of Minnesota, 1998.
Le Fevre 1997 {published data only}
    1. Fevre F, Moussier. Psychological management in the asthmatic adolescent. Pediatric Pulmonology 1997;16(Suppl):295. - PubMed
Lehrer 1986 {published data only}
    1. Lehrer PM, Hochron SM, Macca B. Relaxation decreases large airway but not small airway asthma. Journal of Psychosomatic Research 1986;30:13‐25. - PubMed
Lehrer 1994 {published data only}
    1. Lehrer PM, Hochron S, Mayne T, Isenberg S. Relaxation and music therapies for asthma patients prestabilised on asthma medications. Journal of Behavioral Medicine 1994;17(1):1‐24. - PubMed
Lehrer 1997 {published data only}
    1. Lehrer PM, Hochron S, Mayne T, Isenburg S. Relationship between changes in EMG and respiratory sinus arrhythmia in a study of relaxation therapy for asthma. Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback 1997;22:183‐91. - PubMed
Liu 2001 {published data only}
    1. Liu C, Feekery C. Can asthma education improve outcomes? An evaluation of a pediatric asthma education program. Journal of Asthma 2001;38(3):269‐78. - PubMed
Loew 1996 {published data only}
    1. Loew TH, Martus P, Rosner, Zimmermann T. The efficacy of functional relaxation in comparison with salbutamol and a placebo relaxation technique in asthma in children and adolescents [Wirkung von funktioneller Entspannung im Vergleich mit Plazeboentspannungsverfahren bei akutem asthma bronchiale]. Monatschr Kinderheilkunde 1996;144:1357‐63.
Long 1958 {published data only}
    1. Long RT, Lamont JH. A psychosomatic study of allergic and emotional factors in children with asthma. American Journal of Psychiatry 1958;114:890‐99. - PubMed
Mattson 1975 {published data only}
    1. Mattson A. Psychologic aspects of childhood asthma. Pediatric Clinics of North America 1975;22(1):77‐89. - PubMed
McNabb 1986 {published data only}
    1. McNabb WL, Wilson‐Pessano SR, Jacobs AM. Critical self management competencies for children with asthma. Journal of Pediatric Psychology 1986;11(1):103‐17. - PubMed
Miklich 1977 {published data only}
    1. Miklich DR. Clinical utility of behavior therapy as an adjunctive therapy. Journal of Clinical Immunology 1977;60:285‐94. - PubMed
Miller 1994 {published data only}
    1. Miller BD, Wood BL. Psychophysiologic reactivity in asthmatic children: a cholinergically mediated confluence of pathways. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 1994;33(9):1236‐45. - PubMed
Monleon 1994 {published data only}
    1. Benedito‐Monleon C. Psychological factors in childhood asthma. Behavioral and Cognitive Psychotherapy 1994;22:153‐61.
Moore 1965 {published data only}
    1. Moore N. Behavioral therapy in bronchial asthma: a controlled study. Journal of Psychosomatic Research 1965;9:257‐76. - PubMed
Nickel 2005 {published data only}
    1. Nickel C, Kettler C, Muehlbacher M, Lahmann C, Tritt K, Fartacek R, et al. Effect of progressive muscle relaxation in adolescent female bronchial asthma patients: A randomised, double‐blind controlled study. Journal of Psychosomatic Research 2005;59(6):393‐8. - PubMed
Norrish 1977 {published data only}
    1. Norrish M, Tooley M. Clinical, physiological and psychological study of asthmatic children attending a hospital clinic. Archives of Disease in Childhood 1977;52:912‐7. - PMC - PubMed
Otsuka 2005 {published data only}
    1. Otsuka KN, Mark JD, Sherill DL, Tuscon AZ. Guided imagery and progressive relaxation decreases exhaled nitric oxide levels in children with persistent asthma. American Thoracic Society , International Conference. 2005:C47, Poster: A18.
Padur 1995 {published data only}
    1. Padur JS, Rapoff MA. Psychological adjustment and the role of functional status for children with asthma. Journal of Asthma 1995;32:345‐53. - PubMed
Park 1996 {published data only}
    1. Parl SJ, Sawyer SM, Glaun DE. Childhood asthma complicated by anxiety: an application of cognitive behavioral therapy. Journal of Paediatric & Child Health 1996;32:183‐7. - PubMed
Patterson 2005 {published data only}
    1. Patterson EE, Brennan MP, Linksey KM, Webb DC, Shields MD, Patterson CC. A cluster randomised intervention trial of asthma clubs to improve quality of life in primary school children: the School Care and Asthma Management Project (CAMP). Archives of Disease in Childhood 2005;90(8):786‐91. - PMC - PubMed
Paul 1969 {published data only}
    1. Paul GL. Physiological effects of relaxation training and hypnotic suggestion. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 1969;74(4):425‐37. - PubMed
Paully 1967 {published data only}
    1. Paully JW. Correlating physiologic with psychodynamic data in the study and management of childhood asthma. Journal of Psychosomatic Research 1967;11:11‐25. - PubMed
Persaud 1996 {published data only}
    1. Persaud DI, Barnett SE, Weller SC, Baldwin CD, Niebuhr V, McCormick DP. An asthma self management program for children, including instruction in peak flow monitoring by school nurses. Journal of Asthma 1996;33(1):37‐43. - PubMed
Phillip 1972 {published data only}
    1. Phillip RL, Wilde GJ, Day JH. Suggestion and relaxation in asthmatics. Journal of Psychosomatic Research 1972;16:193‐204. - PubMed
Rakos 1985 {published data only}
    1. Rakos RF, Grodek MV, Mack KK. The impact of a self administered behavioral intervention program on pediatric asthma. Journal of Psychosomatic Research 1985;29(1):101‐8. - PubMed
Rietveld 2000 {published data only}
    1. Rietveld S, Everaerd W, Beest I. Excessive breathlessness through emotional imagery in asthma. Behavioral Research and Therapy 2000;38:1005‐14. - PubMed
Rievtveld 1998 {published data only}
    1. Rietveld S, Prins PJM. The relationship between negative emotions and acute subjective and objective symptoms of childhood asthma. Psychological Medicine 1998;28:407‐15. - PubMed
Robertson 1993 {published data only}
    1. Robertson CF, Bishop T. The treatment of asthma in Victorian school children. American Review Respiratory Disease 1993;147(Suppl):A372.
Rubin 1989 {published data only}
    1. Rubin DH, Bauman LJ, Lauby JL. The relationship between knowledge and reported behavior in childhood asthma. Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics 1989;10(6):307‐12. - PubMed
Scherr 1975 {published data only}
    1. Scherr MS, Crawford PL, Sergent CB. The effects of biofeedback techniques on chronic asthmatic children. Annals of Allergy 1975;35:289‐95. - PubMed
Scherr 1978 {published data only}
    1. Sherr MS, Crawford PL. Three year study evaluation of biofeedback techniques in the treatment of children with chronic asthma in a summer camp environment. Annals of Allergy 1978;41:288‐92. - PubMed
Seligman 1970 {published data only}
    1. Seligman T, Randel HO, Stevens JJ. Conditioning program for children with asthma. Physical Therapy 1970;50(5):641‐8. - PubMed
Smith 1970 {published data only}
    1. Smith MM, Colebatch HJ, Clarke PS. Increase and decrease in pulmonary resistance with hypnotic suggestion in asthma. American Review of Respiratory Disease 1970;102:236‐42. - PubMed
Smith 1986 {published data only}
    1. Smith NA, Seale JP, Ley P, Shaw J, Bracs PU. Effects of intervention on medication compliance in children with asthma. The Medical Journal of Asthma 1986;144:119‐22. - PubMed
Szczepanski 1996 {published data only}
    1. Szczepanski R, Gebert N, Hummelink R, Konning J, Schmidt S, Runde B, et al. Outcome of a structured asthma education programme for children and adolescents [Ergebnis einer strukturierten Asthmaschulung im Kindes‐ und Jugendalter]. Pneumologie 1996;50:544‐8. - PubMed
Tal 1976 {published data only}
    1. Tal A, Miklich DR. Emotionally induced decreases in pulmonary flow rates in asthmatic children. Psychosomatic Medicine 1076;38(3):190‐200. - PubMed
Tal 1990 {published data only}
    1. Tal D, Gil‐Spielberg R, Antonovsky H, Tal A, Moaz B. Teaching families to cope with childhood asthma. Family Systems Medicine 1990;8(2):135‐44.
Van Lith 1969 {published data only}
    1. Lith P, Barrocas M, Nelson RA, Sharp JT. Effect of hypnosis on total respiratory compliance. Journal of Applied Physiology 1969;27(6):804‐6. - PubMed
Vazquez 1992 {published data only}
    1. Vazquez MI, Fontan‐Bueso J, Buceta JM. Self perception of asthmatic children and modification through self management programmes. Psychological Reports 1992;71:903‐13. - PubMed
Vazquez 1993a {published data only}
    1. Vazquez MI, Buceta JM. Psychological treatment of asthma: Effectiveness of a self management program with and without relaxation training. Journal of Asthma 1993;30(3):171‐83. - PubMed
Vazquez 1993b {published data only}
    1. Vazquez MI, Buceta JM. Effectiveness of self‐management programmes and relaxation training in the treatment of bronchial asthma: relationships with trait anxiety and emotional attack triggers. Journal of Psychosomatic research 1993;37(1):71‐81. - PubMed
Vazquez 1993c {published data only}
    1. Vazquez I, Buceta J. Relaxation therapy in the treatment of bronchial asthma: Effects on basal spirometric values. Psychotherapy Psychosomatic 1993;60:106‐12. - PubMed
Weiss 1970 {published data only}
    1. Weiss JH, Martin C, Riley J. Effects of suggestion on respiration in asthmatic children. Psychosomatic Medicine 1970;32(4):409‐15. - PubMed
Weiss 1987 {published data only}
    1. Weiss JH, Hermalin JA. The effectiveness of a self‐teaching asthma self‐management training program for school age children and their families. Prevention and Health: Directions for Policy and Practice 1987:57‐78.
Zelter 1980 {published data only}
    1. Zelter L, LeBaron S, Barbour J, Kniker J, Littlefield L. Self hypnosis for poorly controlled adolescent asthmatics. Clinical Research 1980;28(5):862A.

Additional references

BTS 2003
    1. British Thoracic Society. British Guidelines on Asthma Management. Thorax 2003;58(Suppl 1):i1‐94. - PubMed
GINA 2003
    1. Global Initiative for Asthma. Global Strategy for Asthma Management and Prevention (NIH Publication 02‐3659). http://www.ginasthma.com 2003.
Gustafsson 1994
    1. Gustafsson PA, Bjorksten B, Kjellman NIM. Family dysfunction in asthma: a prospective study of illness development. Journal of Pediatrics 1994;125(3):493‐8. - PubMed
Haby 2001
    1. Haby MM, Waters E, Robertson CF, Gibson PG, Ducharme FM. Interventions for educating children who have attended the emergency room for asthma. The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2001, Issue 1. [Art. No.: CD001290. DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD001290] - PubMed
Holloway 2004
    1. Holloway E, Ram FSF. Breathing exercises for asthma. The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2004, Issue 1. [Art. No.: CD001277. DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD001277.pub2] - PubMed
Juniper 1992
    1. Juniper EF, Guyatt GH, Epstein RS, Ferrie PJ, Jaeschke R, Hiller TK. Evaluation of impairment of health‐related quality of life in asthma: development of a questionnaire for use in clinical trials. Thorax 1992;47(2):76‐83. - PMC - PubMed
Roberts 2004
    1. Roberts J, Williams A. Quality of life and asthma control with low‐dose inhaled corticosteroids. British Journal of Nursing 2004;13(19):1124‐30. - PubMed
Sandberg 2000
    1. Sandberg S, Paton JT, Ahola S, McCann DC, McGuiness D, Hillary CR, et al. The role of acute and chronic stress in asthma attacks in children. Lancet 2000;356(9234):982‐7. - PubMed
Stirling 2001
    1. Stirling RG, Chung KF. Severe asthma: definition and mechanisms. Allergy 2001;56(9):825‐40. - PubMed
Wolf 2002
    1. Wolf FM, Guevara JP, Grum CM, Clark NM, Cates CJ. Educational interventions for asthma in children. The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2002, Issue 4. [Art. No.: CD000326. DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD000326] - PubMed
Yorke 2005
    1. Yorke J, Shuldham C. Family therapy for asthma in children. The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2005, Issue 2. [Art. No.: CD000089. DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD000089.pub2] - PMC - PubMed