Spinal trauma. Pathophysiology and management of traumatic spinal injuries

Abstract

Spinal trauma can originate from internal or external sources. Injuries to the spinal cord can be classified as either concussive or compressive and concussive. The pathophysiologic events surrounding spinal cord injury include the primary injury (compression, concussion) and numerous secondary injury mechanisms (vascular, biochemical, electrolyte), which are mediated by excessive oxygen free radicles, neurotransmitter and electrolyte alterations in cell membrane permeability, excitotoxic amino acids, and various other biochemical factors that collectively result in reduced SCBF, ischemia, and eventual necrosis of the gray and white matter. Management of acute spinal cord injuries includes the use of a high-dose corticosteroid regimen within the initial 8 hours after trauma. Sodium prednisolone and methylprednisolone, at recommended doses, act as oxygen radical scavengers and are anti-inflammatory. Additional considerations are the stability of the vertebral column, other conditions associated with trauma (i.e., pneumothorax), and the presence or absence of spinal cord compression, which may warrant surgical therapy. Vertebral fractures or luxations can occur in any area of the spine but most commonly occur at the junction of mobile and immobile segments. Dorsal and dorsolateral surgical approaches are applicable to the lumbosacral and thoracolumbar spine and dorsal and ventral approaches to the cervical spine. Indications for surgical intervention include spinal cord compression and vertebral instability. Instability can be determined from the type of fracture, how many of the three compartments of the vertebrae are disrupted, and on occasion, by carefully positioned stress studies of fluoroscopy. Decompression (dorsal laminectomy, hemilaminectomy, or ventral cervical slot) is employed when compression of the spinal cord exists. The hemilaminectomy (unilateral or bilateral) causes less instability than dorsal laminectomy and therefore should be used when practical. The preferred approach for atlantoaxial subluxation is ventral, and the cross pinning, vertebral fusion technique is used for stabilization. Fracture luxations of C-2 are repaired with small plates on the ventral vertebral body. The thoracic and upper lumbar spine is stabilized with dorsal fixation techniques or combined dorsal spinal plate/vertebral body plate fixation. Several methods of fixation can be used with lower lumbar or lumbosacral fractures, including the modified segmental technique and the combined dorsal spinal plate/Kirschner-Ehmer technique.