Skip to main page content
U.S. flag

An official website of the United States government

Dot gov

The .gov means it’s official.
Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

Https

The site is secure.
The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

Access keys NCBI Homepage MyNCBI Homepage Main Content Main Navigation
Meta-Analysis
. 2006 Jan 25;2006(1):CD005580.
doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD005580.

Antipsychotic medication for elderly people with schizophrenia

R G Marriott  1 , W Neil, S Waddingham
Affiliations
Meta-Analysis

Antipsychotic medication for elderly people with schizophrenia

R G Marriott et al. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. .

Abstract

Background: A large and growing number of older people across the world suffer from schizophrenia. Recommendations for their treatment are largely based on data extrapolated from studies of the use of antipsychotic medications in younger populations. In addition most manufacturers of such medications recommend prescription of reduced doses to the elderly. The evidence base for these assumptions is unclear and raises obvious questions regarding the appropriateness of such prescribing practice.

Objectives: To find and assimilate good evidence of the effects of antipsychotic medication for treatment of schizophrenia in people over 65 years of age.

Search strategy: We searched the Cochrane Schizophrenia Group's Register (May 2003). We inspected references of all included studies for further trials and contacted relevant pharmaceutical companies.

Selection criteria: All clinical randomised trials evaluating antipsychotic drugs for schizophrenia and schizophrenia-like psychoses in older people.

Data collection and analysis: We extracted data independently. For homogenous dichotomous data, the random effects, relative risk (RR), and 95% confidence interval (CI) and, where appropriate, the numbers needed to treat (NNT) were calculated on an intention-to-treat basis. For continuous data, we calculated weighted mean differences (WMD).

Main results: Two hundred and fifty two elderly people with schizophrenia participated in three relevant randomised controlled studies. We were unable to extract usable data on quality of life, satisfaction, service use, or economic outcomes. One small study (n=18) compared thioridazine with remoxipride (RR leaving the study early 1.0 CI 0.07 to 13.6). A second study (n=175) compared risperidone with olanzapine. Global state 'not improved/worse' was not significantly different between treatments (n= 171, RR 1.26 CI 0.8 to 1.9); mental state PANSS total endpoint scores were also equivocal (n=171, RR 0.98 CI 0.76 to 1.26) as were all cognitive function tests. The third study (subset n=59) compared olanzapine with haloperidol and mental state change scores (BPRS WMD -3.60 CI -10.8 to 3.6; PANSS WMD -6.00 CI -18.3 to 6.3) were equivocal.

Authors' conclusions: Antipsychotics may be widely used in the treatment of elderly people with schizophrenia, however, based on this systematic review, there are little robust data available to guide the clinician with respect to the most appropriate drug to prescribe. Clearly reported large short, medium and long-term randomised controlled trials with participants, interventions and primary outcomes that are familiar to those wishing to help elderly people with schizophrenia are long overdue.

PubMed Disclaimer

Conflict of interest statement

None.

Figures

1.1
1.1. Analysis
Comparison 1 THIORIDAZINE versus REMOXIPRIDE (all short term data), Outcome 1 Leaving the study early.
2.1
2.1. Analysis
Comparison 2 RISPERIDONE versus OLANZAPINE (all short term data), Outcome 1 Death: Suicide and natural causes.
2.2
2.2. Analysis
Comparison 2 RISPERIDONE versus OLANZAPINE (all short term data), Outcome 2 Global state: Not improved or worse (CGI).
2.3
2.3. Analysis
Comparison 2 RISPERIDONE versus OLANZAPINE (all short term data), Outcome 3 Mental state: 1. Not improved (PANSS decrease of less than 20%).
2.4
2.4. Analysis
Comparison 2 RISPERIDONE versus OLANZAPINE (all short term data), Outcome 4 Mental state: 2. Average endpoint score (PANSS, high = poor).
2.5
2.5. Analysis
Comparison 2 RISPERIDONE versus OLANZAPINE (all short term data), Outcome 5 Leaving the study early.
2.6
2.6. Analysis
Comparison 2 RISPERIDONE versus OLANZAPINE (all short term data), Outcome 6 Cognitive function.
3.1
3.1. Analysis
Comparison 3 OLANZAPINE versus HALOPERIDOL (all short term data), Outcome 1 Mental state: 1. Average change score (BPRS, decline = good).
3.2
3.2. Analysis
Comparison 3 OLANZAPINE versus HALOPERIDOL (all short term data), Outcome 2 Mental state: 2. Average change score (PANSS, high = poor).
3.3
3.3. Analysis
Comparison 3 OLANZAPINE versus HALOPERIDOL (all short term data), Outcome 3 Mental state: 3. Not improved (MADRS decrease of less than 50%).
3.4
3.4. Analysis
Comparison 3 OLANZAPINE versus HALOPERIDOL (all short term data), Outcome 4 Adverse events: 1. Average change scores (decline = good).
3.5
3.5. Analysis
Comparison 3 OLANZAPINE versus HALOPERIDOL (all short term data), Outcome 5 Adverse events: 2. Discrete events.
See this image and copyright information in PMC

References

References to studies included in this review

Harvey/Jeste 2003 {published data only}
    1. *Jeste DV, Barak Y, Madhusoodanan S, Grossman F, Gharabawi G. International multisite double‐blind trial of the atypical antipsychotics risperidone and olanzapine in 175 elderly patients with chronic schizophrenia. American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry 2003;11(6):638‐47. [EMBASE 2003460986] - PubMed
    1. Harvey PD, Gharabawi G. Cognition in elderly patients with schizophrenia: risperidone versus olanzapine. International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology 2002;5(Suppl 1):S77. [P.1.W.013]
    1. Harvey PD, Gharabawi G. Risperidone and cognition in schizophrenic elderly. XIIth World Congress of Psychiatry; 2002 Aug 24‐29; Yokohama, Japan. 2002. [EMBASE 2002342863]
    1. Harvey PD, Mao L, Napolitano J, Gharabawi G. Cognition in elderly schizophrenic patients: risperidone vs olanzapine. European Psychiatry (11th Association of European Psychiatrists Congress, 2002 4‐8th May, Stockholm, Sweden). 2002, issue Suppl 1:192s. [P46.15 ABSTRACT 426]
    1. Harvey PD, Mao L, Napolitano J, Gharabawi G. Improved cognition in elderly schizophrenic patients: risperidone versus olanzapine. Schizophrenia Research 2002;53(3 Suppl.1):28. [14th Congress of the European College of Neuropsychopharmacology [Congress Information System]: Conifer, Excerpta Medica Medical Communications BV, 2001 P2079#]
Phanjoo 1990 {published data only}
    1. Phanjoo AL, Link C. Remoxipride versus thioridazine in elderly psychotic patients. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica Supplementum 1990;358:181‐5. [MEDLINE: ; PMID 1978481] - PubMed
Tollefson 1997 {published data only}
    1. Andersen SW, Tollefson GD, Sanger T. Depressive signs and symptoms in schizophrenia: a prospective blinded trial of olanzapine and haloperidol. 152nd Annual Meeting of the American Psychiatric Association; 1999 May 15‐20; Washington, USA. 1999. [PsycINFO 1967‐04709‐001] - PubMed
    1. Burns PR, Reams SG, Sanger TM, Beasley CM Jr. Olanzapine in the treatment of elderly patients with schizophrenia and related psychotic disorders. 21st Congress of the Collegium Internationale Neuro‐psychopharmacologicum; 1998 Jul 12‐16; Glasgow, Scotland. 1998. [MEDLINE: ; PMID 6021696]
    1. Burns PR, Reams SG, Sanger TM, Beasley CM Jr. Olanzapine in the treatment of elderly patients with schizophrenia and related psychotic disorders. 9th Biennial Winter Workshop on Schizophrenia; 1998 Feb 7‐13; Davos, Switzerland. 1998. [MEDLINE: ; PMID 779704]
    1. Gilmore J, Kinon BJ, Basson BR, Tollefson GD. Effect of long term olanzapine treatment on weight change in schizophrenia. International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology 2000;3(Suppl 1):S155. [XXIInd C.I.N.P. [CD‐ROM]: Conifer, Excerpta Medica Medical Communications BV, 2000 P01236]
    1. Kennedy JS, Jeste D, Kaiser CJ, Golsham S, Maguire GA, Tollefson G, Sanger T, Bymaster FP, Kinon BJ, Dossenbach M, Gilmore JA, Breier A. Olanzapine vs haloperidol in geriatric schizophrenia: analysis of data from a double‐blind controlled trial. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry 2003;18:1013‐20. [MEDLINE: ; EMBASE 2003491563; PsycINFO 2003‐10341‐008] - PubMed

References to studies excluded from this review

Altman 1973 {published data only}
    1. Altman H, Mehta D, Evenson RC, Sletten IW. Behavioral effects of drug therapy on psychogeriatric inpatients: II. Multivitamin supplement. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society 1973;21(6):249‐52. [MEDLINE: ; PsycINFO 51‐03624; PMID 4145685] - PubMed
Andia 1998 {published data only}
    1. Andia I, Zumarraga M, Zabalo MJ, Bulbena A, Davila R. Differential effect of haloperidol and clozapine on plasma homovanillic acid in elderly schizophrenic patients with or without tardive dyskinesia. Biological Psychiatry 1998;43(1):20‐3. [MEDLINE: ; EMBASE 1998040523; PMID 9442340] - PubMed
Angst 1973 {published data only}
    1. Angst J, Frei M, Scharfetter Chr. The depot neuroleptic agent fluspirilene [Das Depotneurolepticum Fluspirilen. Klinische Pruefung im offenen Versuch und als Doppelblindstudie im Vergleich zu Fluphenazin Decanoat]. Pharmakopsychiatrie Neuropsychopharmakologie 1973;6(1):13‐28. [MEDLINE: ; PMID 4602371] - PubMed
Ayers 1960 {published data only}
    1. Ayers CM. The relative value of various somatic therapies in schizophrenia. Journal of Neuropsychiatry 1960;1:154‐62. [MEDLINE: ; PMID 9477007] - PubMed
Azorin 2001 {published data only}
    1. Azorin JM, Spiegel R, Remington G, Vanelle JM, Pere JJ, Giguere M, Bourdeix I. A double‐blind comparative study of clozapine and risperidone in the management of severe chronic schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry 2001;158(8):1305‐13. [MEDLINE: ; PMID 11481167; CINAHL 2001114781] - PubMed
Baldini 1970 {published data only}
    1. Baldini JT, Neary ER. Controlled trials of an amitriptyline‐fluphenazine combination in depressive neuroses and psychoses: a collaborative study. Current Therapeutic Research Clinical and Experimental 1970;12(2):84‐93. [MEDLINE: ; PMID 4984324] - PubMed
Bamrah 2000 {published data only}
    1. Bamrah S. A multicentre, double‐blind, randomised, parallel group comparison of seroquel and haloperidol in the treatment of elderly patients presenting with dementia and psychosis. National Research Register 2000. [National Research Register N0262026571]
Barak 2000 {published data only}
    1. Barak Y, Shamir E, Weizman R. Risperidone compared with typical neuroleptic treatment in elderly schizophrenic patients. International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology 2000;3(Suppl 1):S122. [XXIInd C.I.N.P. [CD‐ROM]: Conifer, Excerpta Medica Medical Communications BV, 2000 P01119]
Barak 2002 {published data only}
    1. Barak Y, Shamir E, Zemishlani H, Mirecki I, Toren P, Weizman R. Olanzapine vs. haloperidol in the treatment of elderly chronic schizophrenia patients. Progress in Neuro‐Psychopharmacology & Biological Psychiatry 2002;29:1199‐202. [MEDLINE: ; PMID 12452546] - PubMed
Bateman 1979 {published data only}
    1. Bateman DN, Dutta DK, McClelland HA, Rawlins MD. Metoclopramide and haloperidol in tardive dyskinesia. British Journal of Psychiatry 1979;135:505‐8. [MEDLINE: ; PMID 43755] - PubMed
    1. Bateman DN, Dutta DK, McClelland HA, Rawlins MD. The effect of metoclopramide and haloperidol on tardive dyskinesia. British Journal of Pharmacology 1979;66(3):475‐6. [MEDLINE: ; PMID 526754] - PMC - PubMed
Beasley 2003 {published data only}
    1. Beasley CM, Sutton VK, Hamilton SH, /Walker DJ, Dossenbach M, Taylor CC, Alaka KJ, Bykowski D, Tollefson GD. A double‐blind, randomised, placebo‐controlled trial of olanzapine in the prevention of psychotic relapse. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology 2003;23:582‐94. - PubMed
Berman 1995 {published data only}
    1. Berman I, Allan ER, Pappas D, Sison CE, Merson A. The cognitive effect of risperidone in elderly schizophrenic patients a pilot double‐blind comparison study with haloperidol. 150th Annual Meeting of the American Psychiatric Association; 1997 May 17‐22; San Diego, USA. 1997. [MEDLINE: ; PMID 43755]
    1. Berman I, Merson A, Allan E, Alexis C, Losonczy M. Effect of risperidone on cognitive performance in elderly schizophrenic patients: a double‐blind comparison study with haloperidol. Psychopharmacology Bulletin 1995;31(3):552. [MEDLINE: ; PMID 235013]
Bora 1968 {published data only}
    1. Bora G. Comparison of dosage ranges of carphenazine and trifluoperazine in elderly chronic schizophrenics. Diseases of the Nervous System 1968;29(10):695‐7. [MEDLINE: ; PMID 4887393] - PubMed
Bossie 2003 {published data only}
    1. Bossie C, Lasser R, Gharabawi G. Low or absent pain and injection site effects with long‐acting risperidone. 156th Annual Meeting of the American Psychiatric Association, San Francisco, USA. 2003, May 17‐22.
Brauzer 1968 {published data only}
    1. Brauzer B, Goldstein BJ. Comparative effects of intramuscular thiothixene and trifluoperazine in psychotic patients. Journal of Clinical Pharmacology and the Journal of New Drugs 1968;8(6):400‐3. [MEDLINE: ; PMID 4883787] - PubMed
Breier 1999 {published data only}
    1. Alan B, Hamilton SH. Comparative efficacy of olanzapine and haloperidol for patients with treatment resistant schizophrenia. 11th World Congress of Psychiatry; 1999 Aug 6‐11; Hamburg, Germany. 1999:144. [11th World Congress of Psychiatry [CD‐ROM]: Conifer, Excerpta Medica Medical Communications BV, 1999 PO‐04‐22] - PubMed
    1. Breier A, Hamilton SH. Comparative efficacy of olanzapine and haloperidol for patients with treatment resistant schizophrenia. Biological Psychiatry 1999;45(4):403‐11. [MEDLINE: ; PMID 10071708] - PubMed
    1. Breier AF, Hamilton SH. Comparative efficacy of olanzapine and haloperidol for patients with treatment‐resistant schizophrenia. 152nd Annual Meeting of the American Psychiatric Association; 1999 May 15‐20; Washington, USA. 1999. [MEDLINE: ; PMID 355182] - PubMed
Buruma 1982 {published data only}
    1. Buruma OJ, Roos RA, Bruyn GW, Kemp B, Velde EA. Tiapride in the treatment of tardive dyskinesia. Acta Neurologica Scandinavica 1982;65(1):38‐44. [MEDLINE: ; PMID 6121443] - PubMed
Cantillon 1998 {published data only}
    1. Cantillon M. Quetiapine fumarate reduces aggression. 11th Annual Meeting of the American Association for Geriatric Psychiatry; 1998 Mar 8‐11; San Diego, USA. 1998. [MEDLINE: ; PMID 7694918]
Canuso 2003 {published data only}
    1. Canuso CM, Bossie C, Lasser R, Gharabawi G. Reduced serum prolactin levels following long‐acting treatment with risperidone. 156th Annual Meeting of the American Psychiatric Association, San Francisco, USA. 2003, May 17‐22.
Cassano 1975 {published data only}
    1. Cassano GB, Castrogiovanni P, Conti L, Bonollo L. Sulpiride versus haloperidol in schizophrenia: a double blind comparative trial. Current Therapeutic Research 1975;17(2):189‐201. [PsycINFO 54‐01569] - PubMed
Chouinard 1979 {published data only}
    1. Chouinard G, Jones BD. Evidence of brain dopamine deficiency in schizophrenia. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry (Revue Canadienne de Psychiatrie) 1979;24(7):661‐7. [EMBASE 1980059772] - PubMed
Chouinard 1983 {published data only}
    1. Chouinard G, Annable L, Ross Chouinard A, et al. Piracetam in elderly psychiatric patients with mild diffuse cerebral impairment. Psychopharmacology 1983;81(2):100‐6. [EMBASE 1983233845] - PubMed
Citrome 2001 {published data only}
    1. Citrome LL, Volavka J, Czobor P, Sheitman BB, Lindenmayer J‐P, McEvoy JP, Lieberman JA. Atypical antipsychotics and hostility in schizophrenia: a double‐blind study. Annual Meeting of the American Psychiatric Association; 2001 May 5‐10; LA, USA. Marathon Multimedia, 2001. [14th Congress of the European College of Neuropsychopharmacology [Congress Information System]: Conifer, Excerpta Medica Medical Communications BV, 2001 P2033#]
Cody 1977 {published data only}
    1. Cody J, Robinson AM. The effect of low‐cost maintenance medication on the rehospitalization of schizophrenic outpatients. American Journal of Psychiatry 1977;134:73‐6. [MEDLINE: ; PMID 831545] - PubMed
Conley 2001 {published data only}
    1. Conley RR, Mahmoud R. A randomised double‐blind study of risperidone and olanzapine in the treatment of schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry 2001;158(5):765‐74. - PubMed
Coryell 1998 {published data only}
    1. Coryell W, Miller D D, Perry P J. Haloperidol plasma levels and dose optimization. American Journal of Psychiatry 1998;155(1):48‐53. [MEDLINE: ; PMID 6121443] - PubMed
Crow 1986 {published data only}
    1. Crow TJ, MacMillan JF, Johnson AL, Johnstone EC. A randomised controlled trial of prophylactic neuroleptic treatment. British Journal of Psychiatry 1986;148:120‐7. [MEDLINE: ; PMID 2870753] - PubMed
Csernansky 2002 {published data only}
    1. Csernansky JG, Mahmoud R, Brenner R, The Risperidone‐USA‐79 Study Group. A comparison of risperidone and haloperidol for the prevention of relapse in patients with schizophrenia. New England Journal of Medicine 2002;346(1):16‐22. [MEDLINE: ; PMID 11777998] - PubMed
Daniel 1999 {published data only}
    1. Daniel DG, Zimbroff DL, Potkin SG, Reeves KR, Harrigan EP, Lakshminarayanan M. Ziprasidone 80 mg/day and 160 mg/day in the acute exacerbation of schizophrenia and schizoaffective disorder: a 6 week placebo controlled trial. Ziprasidone Study Group. Neuropsychopharmacology 1999;20(5):491‐505. [MEDLINE: ; PMID 10192829] - PubMed
    1. Reeves K, Harrigan EP. Two fixed doses of ziprasidone efficacy and safety. 10th World Congress of Psychiatry; 1996 Aug 23‐28; Madrid, Spain. 1996. [PsycINFO 1965‐05331‐001]
    1. Reeves KR. The efficacy and safety of two fixed doses of ziprasidone in schizophrenia. 149th Annual Meeting of the American Psychiatric Association; 1996 May 4‐9; New York, USA. 1996. [MEDLINE: ; PMID 1978481]
de Jong 1965 {published data only}
    1. Jong J. Efficacy of phenothiazines without antiparkinson drugs. Diseases of the Nervous System 1965;26(11):702‐4. [MEDLINE: ; PMID 5320745] - PubMed
Delwaide 1979 {published data only}
    1. Delwaide PJ, Desseilles M. Controlled therapeutic study of spontaneous bucco‐linguo‐facial dyskinesias (author's transl) [Etude therapeutique controlee des dyskinesies bucco‐linguo‐faciales spontanees]. Semaine des Hopitaux 1979;55(35‐6):1585‐9. [MEDLINE: ; PMID 9248874] - PubMed
Denijs 1973 {published data only}
    1. Denijs EL, Vereecken JL. Pimozide (orap, R 6238) in residual schizophrenia. A clinical evaluation with long‐term double‐blind follow‐up. Psychiatria Neurologia Neurochirurgia 1973;76(1):47‐59. [MEDLINE: ; PMID 4699105] - PubMed
Dick 1975 {published data only}
    1. Dick P, Remy M, Rey Bellet JJ. Comparison of two antipsychotic drugs: chlorpromazine and clozapine [Essai de comparaison de deux antipsychotiques: la chlorpromazine et la clozapine]. Therapeutische Umschau 1975;32(8):497‐500. [MEDLINE: ; PMID 1099714] - PubMed
Docherty 2002 {published data only}
    1. Docherty JP, Napolitano J, Mahmoud RA, Martinez RA, Lasser RA, Pandina GJ, Gharabawi G. Anticholinergic effect of atypical antipsychotics in elderly patients. 155th Annual Meeting of the American Psychiatric Association; 2002 May 18‐23; Philadelphia, PA, USA. 2002. [NR142]
    1. Tune L, Mulsant B, Gharabawi G. Anticholinergic effect of atypical antipsychotics in elderly patients. European Neuropsychopharmacology. 2002; Vol. 12:S314.
Dolnak 2001 {published data only}
    1. Dolnak DR, Rapaport MH. A prospective, randomised, double‐blind study examining functioning in schizophrenic patients treated with olanzapine and risperidone. Schizophrenia Research 2001;49(1,2):225‐6.
Ekblom 1974 {published data only}
    1. Ekblom B, Haggstrom JE. Clozapine (Leponex) compared with chlorpromazine ‐ a double blind evaluation of pharmacological and clinical properties. Current Therapeutic Research. 1974, issue 9:945‐57. [PsycINFO 53‐05854] - PubMed
Elie 1975 {published data only}
    1. Elie R, Gagnon MA, Gauthier R, Jequier JC. Effects of neuroleptic withdrawal on the drug‐induced extrapyramidal syndrome of chronic schizophrenia [Effets d'un sevrage neuroleptique sur le syndrome extrapyramidal medicamenteux de la schizophrenie chronique]. Union Medicale du Canada. 1975; Vol. 104, issue 6:909‐14. [MEDLINE: ; PMID 772906] - PubMed
Emsley 1999 {published data only}
    1. Emsley RA, Bailey P, Jones AM, Raniwalla J. Efficacy of quetiapine fumarate in partial responders. 152nd Annual Meeting of the American Psychiatric Association; 1999 May 15‐20; Washington, USA. 1999. [MEDLINE: ; PMID 5320745]
    1. Emsley RA, Raniwalla J, Bailey P, Jones AM. Efficacy and tolerability of 'Seroquel' compared with haloperidol in schizophrenic patients partially responsive to conventional antipsychotic treatment. Journal of the European College of Neuropsychopharmacology 1999;9:S267. [MEDLINE: ; PMID 9477007]
Emsley 2000 {published data only}
    1. Emsley RA, Raniwalla J, Jones AM. Efficacy of seroquel in treating all of the positive and negative symptoms of schizophrenia. Poster presented at 10th Biennial Winter Workshop on Schizophrenia; 2000 Feb 5‐11, Davos, Switzerland. 2000. [11th World Congress of Psychiatry [CD‐ROM]: Conifer, Excerpta Medica Medical Communications BV, 1999 PO‐04‐22]
Evans 2000 {published data only}
    1. Evans M. Multi‐centre double blind randomised parallel group comparison of seroquel and haloperidol in the treatment of elderly patients presenting with dementia, psychoses. National Research Register 2000. [National Research Register N0279034588]
Feldman 2003 {published data only}
    1. Feldman PD, Kaiser CJ, Kennedy JS, Sutton VK, Tran PV, Tollefson GD, Zhang F, Breier A. Comparison of risperidone and olanzapine in the control of negative symptoms of chronic schizophrenia and related psychotic disorders in patients aged 50 to 65 years. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 2003;64(9):998‐1004. [MEDLINE: ; EMBASE 2003383256] - PubMed
Fitzgerald 1969 {published data only}
    1. Fitzgerald CH. A double‐blind comparison of haloperidol with perphenazine. Current Therapeutic Research 1969;11(8):515‐9. [CRISP Grant Number ‐ 5K02MH01510‐04] - PubMed
Friedman 2003 {published data only}
    1. Friedman JH. Atypical antipsychotics in the EPS‐vulnerable patient. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2003;28(Suppl. 1):39‐51. [2003006556] - PubMed
Garry 1966 {published data only}
    1. Garry J, Hill E. A controlled comparative trial of chlorpromazine and benzquinamide in chronic schizophrenia. International Journal of Neuropsychiatry 1966;2(6):594‐6. [PsycINFO 1967‐04709‐001]
Gerlach 1988 {published data only}
    1. Gerlach J. Tardive dyskinesia: pathophysiological mechanisms and clinical trials. Encephale 1988;14:227‐32. [MEDLINE: ; PMID 4872367] - PubMed
Glazer 1985 {published data only}
    1. Glazer WM, Naftolin F, Morgenstern H. Estrogen replacement and tardive dyskinesia. Psychoneuroendocrinology 1985;10(3):345‐50. [MEDLINE: ; PMID 2865766] - PubMed
Glazer 1990 {published data only}
    1. Glazer WM, Hafez H. A comparison of masking effects of haloperidol versus molindone in tardive dyskinesia. Schizophrenia Research 1990;3(5‐6):315‐20. [MEDLINE: ; PMID 1980827] - PubMed
Glazer 1997 {published data only}
    1. Glazer WM, Johnstone BM. Pharmacoeconomic evaluation of antipsychotic therapy for schizophrenia. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 1997;58(Suppl 10):50‐4. [PsycINFO 1997‐05675‐009] - PubMed
Gregor 1999 {published data only}
    1. Gregor K, Hamilton S, Edgell E. Functional outcomes in schizophrenia: a European comparison of olanzapine and haloperidol. 11th World Congress of Psychiatry; 1999 Aug 6‐11; Hamburg, Germany. 1999:152. [11th World Congress of Psychiatry [CD‐ROM]: Conifer, Excerpta Medica Medical Communications BV, 1999 PO‐08‐20]
    1. Gregor KJ, Allicar MP, Lilliu H, Olivier V, Pen C, Gavart S. An economic comparison of olanzapine versus haloperidol in the treatment of schizophrenia in France. International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology. 2000, issue Suppl 1:S161. [XXIInd C.I.N.P. [CD‐ROM]: Conifer, Excerpta Medica Medical Communications BV, 2000 P01257]
Gross 1974 {published data only}
    1. Gross HS. A double‐blind comparison of once‐a‐day pimozide, trifluoperazine, and placebo in the maintenance care of chronic schizophrenic outpatients. Current Therapeutic Research Clinical and Experimental 1974;16(7):696‐705. [PsycINFO 1967‐04709‐001] - PubMed
Haggstrom 1980 {published data only}
    1. Haggstrom J‐E. Sulpiride in tardive dyskinesia. Current Therapeutic Research 1980;27(2):164‐9. [N0164101907]
Hanlon 1964 {published data only}
    1. Hanlon TE, Nussbaum K, Wittig B, Hanlon DD, Kurland AA. The comparative effectiveness of amitriptyline, perphenazine, and their combination in the treatment of chronic psychotic female patients. Journal of New Drugs 1964;4:52‐60. [PsycINFO 1967‐04709‐001] - PubMed
Harris 1992 {published data only}
    1. Harris MJ, Panton D, Caligiuri MP, Krull AJ, Tran Johnson TK, Jeste DV. High incidence of tardive dyskinesia in older outpatients on low doses of neuroleptics. Psychopharmacology Bulletin 1992;28(1):87‐92. [MEDLINE: ; PMID 1609047] - PubMed
Harris 1997 {published data only}
    1. Harris MJ, Paulsen JS, Lacro JP, /Rockwell E, Jeste DV. Neuroleptic maintenance treatment in the elderly. American Psychiatric Association, 150th Annual Meeting, San Diego. 1997.
Harvey 2002 {published data only}
    1. Harvey P, Meltzer H, Green M. Long term cognitive effects of risperidone treatment in schizophrenia. International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology. 2000, issue Suppl 1:S154. [XXIInd C.I.N.P. [CD‐ROM]: Conifer, Excerpta Medica Medical Communications BV, 2000 P01228]
    1. Harvey PD. Long‐term cognitive effects of risperidone treatment in schizophrenia. 155th Annual Meeting of the American Psychiatric Association; 2002 May 18‐23; Philadelphia, PA, USA. 2002. [NR343 Tuesday, May 16, 3:00 p.m.‐5:00 p.m]
    1. Harvey PD. Long‐term cognitive effects of risperidone treatment in schizophrenia. 52nd Institute on Psychiatric Services; 2000 Oct 25‐29; Philadelphia, USA. 2000. [11th World Congress of Psychiatry [CD‐ROM]: Conifer, Excerpta Medica Medical Communications BV, 1999 PO‐10‐89]
    1. Harvey PD, Lyons BE, Mahmoud R. Long term cognitive effects of risperidone. Schizophrenia Research. 2000, issue 1:200‐1. [MEDLINE: ; PMID 10192829]
Harvey 2003 {published data only}
    1. Harvey P, Meltzer HY, Green MP. Cognitive effects of risperidone versus olanzapine in patients with schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder. 7th World Congress of Biological Psychiatry; 2001 Jul 1‐6; Berlin, Germany. 2001, issue Suppl. 1. [7th World Congress of Biological Psychiatry [CD‐ROM]: Conifer, Excerpta Medica Medical Communications BV, 2001 P021‐48]
    1. Harvey P, Melzer H, Green M. Cognitive effects of risperidone and olanzapine in patients with schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder. Biological Psychiatry 2001;49(8):123S. [P02.4 ABSTRACT 155]
    1. Harvey PD. Cognitive effects of risperidone and olanzapine in patients with schizophrenia. 52nd Institute on Psychiatric Services; 2000 Oct 25‐29; Philadelphia, USA. 2000. [11th World Congress of Psychiatry [CD‐ROM]: Conifer, Excerpta Medica Medical Communications BV, 1999 PO‐10‐89]
    1. Harvey PD. Cognitive effects of risperidone and olanzapine in patients with schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder. 153rd Annual Meeting of the American Psychiatric Association; 2000 May 13‐18; Chicago, USA. 2000. [153rd Annual Meeting of the American Psychiatric Association [CD‐ROM]: MARATHON Multimedia, 2000 NR342]
    1. Harvey PD. Cognitive effects of risperidone and olanzapine in patients with schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder. 155th Annual Meeting of the American Psychiatric Association; 2002 May 18‐23; Philadelphia, PA, USA. 2002. [NR342 Tuesday, May 16, 3:00 p.m.‐5:00 p.m]
Harvey 2004a {published data only}
    1. Harvey P, Simpson GM, Loebel A. Effect of ziprasidone vs olanzapine on cognition in schizophrenia: a double‐blind study. International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology 2002;5(Suppl.1):S125. [P.2.W.032]
    1. Harvey P, Simpson GM, Loebel A. Ziprasidone vs olanzapine for cognitive function in schizophrenia. The Journal of the European College of Neuropsychopharmacology 2002;12(Supplement 3):S293. [Hallo P.2.093]
    1. Harvey PD, Simpson G, Horne R, Weiden PJ, Bari M, Romano SJ. Effects of ziprasidone on cognitive function in patients with schizophrenia: results of a double‐blind trial vs. olanzapine. Schizophrenia Research 2002;53(3 Suppl.1):195. [11th World Congress of Psychiatry [CD‐ROM]: Conifer, Excerpta Medica Medical Communications BV, 1999 PO‐10‐89]
    1. Harvey PD, Simpson G, Horne R, Weiden PJ, Bari M, Romano SJ. Ziprasidone vs olanzapine for cognitive function in schizophrenia. European Psychiatry (11th Association of European Psychiatrists Congress, 2002 4‐8th May, Stockholm, Sweden). 2002, issue Suppl 1:100s. [P02.4 ABSTRACT 155]
    1. Harvey PD, Simpson GM, Loebel A. Ziprasidone versus olanzapine in improving cognition in schizophrenia. 3rd International Conference on Early Psychosis; 2002 Sep 26‐28; Copenhagen, Denmark. 2002:69‐70. [P02.03]
Harvey 2004b {published data only}
    1. Harvey PD, Meltzer H, Romano SJ. Cognitive function in stable outpatients switched to ziprasidone. European Psychiatry (11th Association of European Psychiatrists Congress, 2002 4‐8th May, Stockholm, Sweden). 2002, issue Suppl 1:99s. [P02.3 ABSTRACT 154]
    1. Harvey PD, Meltzer H, SimpsonGM, Potkin SG, Loebel A, Siu C, Romano SJ. Improvement in cognitive function following a switch to ziprasidone from conventional antipsychotics, olanzapine, or risperidone in outpatients with schizophrenia.. Schizophrenia Research 2004;66:101‐13. - PubMed
    1. Harvey PD, Meltzer HY, Romano S. Improvement in cognition following a switch to open label ziprasidone from olanzapine, risperidone and conventional antipsychotics. International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology 2000;3(Suppl 1):S161. [XXIInd C.I.N.P. [CD‐ROM]: Conifer, Excerpta Medica Medical Communications BV, 2000 P01258]
    1. Harvey PD, Meltzer HY, Romano S. Improvement in cognition following a switch to open label ziprasidone from olanzapine, risperidone and conventional antipsychotics. Journal of the European College of Neuropsychopharmacology 2000;10(Suppl 3):S288. [13th Congress of the European College of Neuropsychopharmacology [CD‐ROM]: Conifer, Excerpta Medica Medical Communications BV, 2000 P2018]
    1. Harvey PD, Meltzer HY, Romano SJ. Improvement in cognition following a switch to open label ziprasidone in outpatients with schizophrenia treated with conventional antipsychotics, olanzapine or risperidone. 153rd Annual Meeting of the American Psychiatric Association; 2000 May 13‐18; Chicago, USA. 2000. [153rd Annual Meeting of the American Psychiatric Association [CD‐ROM]: MARATHON Multimedia, 2000 NR344]
Heck 2000 {published data only}
    1. Heck AH, Haffmans PMJ, Groot IW, Hoencamp E. Risperidone versus haloperidol in psychotic patients with disturbing neuroleptic‐induced extrapyramidal symptoms: A double‐blind, multi‐center trial. Schizophrenia Research 2000;46(2‐3):97‐105. [MEDLINE: ; PMID 11120421; EMBASE 2000441700] - PubMed
Hellewell 1998a {published data only}
    1. Hellewell JSE, Cameron‐Hands D, Cantillon M. Seroquel: evidence for efficacy in the treatment of hostility and aggression. Schizophrenia Research 1998;29(1,2):154. [PsycINFO 1965‐05331‐001]
Hellewell 1998b {published data only}
    1. Hellewell JSE, Cameron Hands D, McKellar J. 'Seroquel' : an effective atypical antipsychotic with no greater EPS than placebo across the full dose range. Schizophrenia Research 1998;29(1,2):154. [PsycINFO 1965‐05331‐001]
Hellewell 2000 {published data only}
    1. Hellewell JS, Westhead E. Safety during long‐term exposure to quetiapine. 39th Annual Meeting of the American College of Neuropsychopharmacology; 2000; Dec 10‐14; San Juan; Puerto Rico. 2000. [MEDLINE: ; PMID 9260735]
    1. Hellewell JSE, Westhead E. Safety during long‐term exposure to quetiapine. Annual Meeting of the American Psychiatric Association; 2001 May 5‐10; LA, USA. Marathon Multimedia, 2001. [14th Congress of the European College of Neuropsychopharmacology [Congress Information System]: Conifer, Excerpta Medica Medical Communications BV, 2001 P2033#]
Hirsch 1975 {published data only}
    1. Hirsch SR. The interaction between depot‐phenothiazines and the social and clinical manifestations of behaviour in patients with stabilised chronic schizophrenia. In: Praag HM editor(s). On the origin of schizophrenic psychoses. De Erven Bohn BV, 1975:209‐22. [PsycINFO 1997‐05675‐009]
Howanitz 1999 {published data only}
    1. Howanitz E, Pardo M, Smelson DA, Engelhart C, Eisenstein N, Losonczy MF. The efficacy and safety of clozapine versus chlorpromazine in geriatric schizophrenia. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 1999;60(1):41‐4. [MEDLINE: ; PMID 10074877] - PubMed
    1. Howanitz EM, Pardo M Litwin P, Stern RG, Wainwright KM, FLosonczy M. Efficacy of clozapine versus chlorpromazine in geriatric schizophrenia. 149th Annual Meeting of the American Psychiatric Association; 1996 May 4‐9; New York, USA. 1996. [MEDLINE: ; PMID 235013]
Jakovljevic 1999 {published data only}
    1. Jakovljevic M, Dossenbach MRK. Olanzapine versus fluphenazine in the acute (six‐week) treatment of schizophrenia. Psychiatria Danubina 1999;11(1‐2):3‐11. [MEDLINE: ; PMID 9477007]
Johnstone 1997 {published data only}
    1. Johnstone EC, Owens DGC. Does early treatment have an effect on outcome?. 10th European College of Neuropsychopharmacology Congress; 1997 Sep 13‐17; Vienna, Austria. 1997. [MEDLINE: ; PMID 2870753]
Judah 1959 {published data only}
    1. Judah L, Murphree O, Seager L. Psychiatric response of geriatric‐psychiatric patients to Mellaril (TP‐21 Sandoz). American Journal of Psychiatry 1959;115:1118‐9. [PsycINFO 53‐05854] - PubMed
Kinon 1998 {published data only}
    1. Kinon BJ, Basson MS, Tollefson GD. Gender‐specific prolactin response to treatment with olanzapine versus haloperidol in schizophrenia. Poster presented at the 9th Biennial European Winter Workshop on Schizophrenia; 1998 February 7‐13, Davos, Switzerland. 1998. [MEDLINE: ; PMID 772906]
Kinon 2000 {published data only}
    1. Kinon BJ, Milton DR, Hill AL. Effective resolution of acute presentation of behavioral agitation and positive psychotic symptoms in schizophrenia with olanzapine. International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology. 2000, issue Suppl 1:S154. [XXIInd C.I.N.P. [CD‐ROM]: Conifer, Excerpta Medica Medical Communications BV, 2000 P01230]
Kinon 2001 {published data only}
    1. Kinon BJ, Wang, Stauffer VL. A comparison of prolactin concentrations in the elderly during treatment with olanzapine, haloperidol, and risperidone. 14th Annual Meeting of the American Association for Geriatric Psychiatry; 2001 Feb 23‐26; San Francisco, USA. 2001. [MEDLINE: ; EMBASE 2000420432; PMID 11106143]
Kinon 2003 {published data only}
    1. Kinon BJ, Stauffer VL, Kaiser C, Walker SK. Incidence of presumptive tardive dyskinesia in elderly patients treated with olanzapine or conventional antipsychotics. 156th Annual Meeting of the American Psychiatric Association; 2003 May 17‐22; San Francisco, USA. 2003. [[NR555]]
Kopala 2003 {published data only}
    1. Kopala L, Rabinowitz J, Davidson M. Extra‐pyramidal signs and symptoms (eps) in recent onset schizophrenia: a comparison of risperidone and haloperidol. Journal of the European College of Neuropsychopharmacology 2003;13(4):S338. [P.2.135]
Lovett 1987 {published data only}
    1. Lovett WC, Stokes DK, Taylor LB, Young ML, Free SM, Phelan DG. Management of behavioral symptoms in disturbed elderly patients: comparison of trifluoperazine and haloperidol. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 1987;48(6):234‐36. [MEDLINE: ; PsycINFO 65‐08548; PMID 538170] - PubMed
MacMillan 1986 {published data only}
    1. MacMillan JF, Crow TJ, Johnson AL, Johnstone EC. Short‐term outcome in trial entrants and trial eligible patients. British Journal of Psychiatry 1986;148(February):128‐33. [EMBASE 1986102574] - PubMed
McInnes 1978 {published data only}
    1. McInnes EJ, Walker F, Snelling E. The observer interaction variable in evaluation of socialising properties of pimozide (Orap). New Zealand Medical Journal 1978;87(607):170‐2. [MEDLINE: ; PMID 349428] - PubMed
Meltzer 1997 {published data only}
    1. Meltzer H, O'Connor R. Path analysis of the ZEUS study provides evidence of a direct effect of ziprasidone on primary negative symptoms in chronic, stable schizophrenia. Company poster ‐ Pfizer 1997.
Mohler 1970 {published data only}
    1. Mohler G. Clinical trial of thiothixene (Navane) in elderly chronic schizophrenics. Current Therapeutic Research Clinical and Experimental 1970;12(6):377‐86. [MEDLINE: ; PMID 4987345] - PubMed
Moller 1997 {published data only}
    1. Moller HJ, Bauml J, Ferrero F, Fuger J, Geretsegger C, Kasper S, Kissling W, Schubert H. Risperidone in the treatment of schizophrenia: results of a study of patients from Germany, Austria, and Switzerland. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience 1997;247(6):291‐6. [MEDLINE: ; PMID 9477007] - PubMed
Mullen 1999 {published data only}
    1. Mullen J, Bari M, Reinstein M, Sandler N, Ginsberg L. Quetiapine and risperidone in outpatients with psychoses. 11th World Congress of Psychiatry; 1999 Aug 6‐11; Hamburg, Germany. 1999:254. [11th World Congress of Psychiatry [CD‐ROM]: Conifer, Excerpta Medica Medical Communications BV, 1999 PO‐10‐89]
    1. Mullen J, Bari M, Reinstein M, Sandler N, Ginsberg L. Quetiapine and risperidone in outpatients with psychoses. 11th World Congress of Psychiatry; 1999 Aug 6‐11; Hamburg, Germany. 1999:254. [11th World Congress of Psychiatry [CD‐ROM]: Conifer, Excerpta Medica Medical Communications BV, 1999 PO‐10‐89]
    1. Mullen J, Reinstein M, Bari M, Ginsberg L, Sandler N. Quetiapine and risperidone in outpatients with psychotic disorders: results of the QUEST trial. The Journal of the European College of Neuropsychopharmacology 1999;9(5):S269. [N0164101907]
Naukkarinen 2000 {published data only}
    1. Naukkarinen H, Rimon R, Katila H, Riihikangas R, Heikkila L. Olanzapine and perphenazine in schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research 2000;41(1):190.
Niskanen 1974 {published data only}
    1. Niskanen P, et al. Results of a comparative double‐blind study with clozapine and chlorpromazine in the treatment of schizophrenic patients. Psychiatria Fennica 1974;5:307‐13. [PsycINFO 1977‐03995‐001]
Nussbaum 1964 {published data only}
    1. Nussbaum K, Shaffer JW, Michaux WW. Modaline sulfate in the treatment of chronic schizophrenics. Journal of New Drugs 1964;4(2):86‐92. [PsycINFO 1965‐05331‐001] - PubMed
Pigott 2003 {published data only}
    1. Pigott TA, Carson WH, Saha AR, Torbeyns AF, Stock EG, Ingenito GG. Aripiprazole for the prevention of relapse in stabilized patients with chronic schizophrenia: A placebo‐controlled 26‐week study. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 2003;64(9):1048‐56. - PubMed
Povlsen 1987 {published data only}
    1. Povlsen UJ, Noring U, Meidahl B, Korsgaard S, Waehrens J, Gerlach J. The effects of neuroleptics on tardive dyskinesias. A video‐controlled, randomized study of chlorprothixene, perphenazine, haloperidol and haloperidol + biperiden [Neuroleptikas virkning pa tardive dyskinesier. En videokontrolleret, randomiseret undersogelse med klorprotixen, perfenazin, haloperidol og haloperidol + biperiden]. Ugeskrift for Laeger 1987;149(25):1682‐5. [MEDLINE: ; PMID 3299955] - PubMed
Quinn 1984 {published data only}
    1. Quinn N, Marsden CD. A double blind trial of sulpiride in Huntington's disease and tardive dyskinesia. Journal of Neurology Neurosurgery and Psychiatry 1984;47(8):844‐7. [MEDLINE: ; PMID 3299955] - PMC - PubMed
Rapaport 2001 {published data only}
    1. Rapaport MH, Dolnak DR, Caligiuri M. A pilot study investigating the acute effects of olanzapine and risperidone on motor function. Schizophrenia Research 2001;49(1,2):242. [MEDLINE: ; PMID 9477007]
Reznik 1998 {published data only}
    1. Reznik I, Sirota P. Treatment of obsessive and compulsive symptoms in schizophrenia with SSRI's and neuroleptics: a randomized controlled trial. 21st Congress of the Collegium Internationale Neuro‐psychopharmacologicum; 1998 Jul 12‐16; Glasgow, Scotland. 1998. [PsycINFO 1965‐05331‐001]
Ritchie 2003 {published data only}
    1. Ritchie CW, Chiu E, Harrigan S, Hall K, Hassett A, Macfarlane SMM, O'Connor DW, Opie J, Ames D. The impact upon extra‐pyramidal side effects, clinical symptoms and quality of life of a switch from conventional to atypical antipsychotics (riperidone or olanzapine) in elderly patients with schizophrenia. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry 2003;18((5)):432‐40. - PubMed
Ruskin 1991 {published data only}
    1. Ruskin PE, Nyman G. Discontinuation of neuroleptic medication in older, outpatient schizophrenics. A placebo‐controlled, double‐blind trial. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 1991;179(4):212‐4. [PsycINFO 78‐25375] - PubMed
Salganik 1998 {published data only}
    1. Salganik I, Modai I, Bercovici BR, Kutzuk D, Weizman A. Clozapine vs haloperidol therapy in elderly chronic schizophrenic inpatients: preliminary results. A double blind, cross over randomized study. International Journal of Geriatric Psychopharmacology 1998;1(4):185‐7. [EMBASE 1999265614]
Schiele 1975 {published data only}
    1. Schiele BC. Loxapine succinate: a controlled double‐blind study in chronic schizophrenia. Diseases of the Nervous System 1975;36(7):361‐4. [MEDLINE: ; PMID 1097221] - PubMed
Sharma 1991 {published data only}
    1. Sharma SK, Jaigirdar SH. A comparison of fluphenazine decanoate and haloperidol decanoate in chronic schizophrenia. British Journal of Clinical Research 1991;2:177‐86. [MEDLINE: ; PMID 11120421; EMBASE 2000441700]
Silverstone 1984 {published data only}
    1. Silverstone T, Cookson J, Ball R, Chin CN, Jacobs D, Lader S, Gould S. The relationship of dopamine receptor blockade to clinical response in schizophrenic patients treated with pimozide or haloperidol. Journal of Psychiatric Research 1984;18(3):255‐68. [MEDLINE: ; PMID 6387105] - PubMed
Singh 2002 {published data only}
    1. Singh V. Ziprasidone quality of life study in the treatment of schizophrenia and schizoaffective disorder. National Research Register 2002. [N0163097327]
Speller 1997 {published data only}
    1. Speller JC, Barnes TRE, Curson DA, Pantelis C, Alberts JL. One‐year, low‐dose neuroleptic study of in‐patients with chronic schizophrenia characterised by persistent negative symptoms. Amisulpride v haloperidol. British Journal of Psychiatry 1997;171(DECEMBER):564‐8. [EMBASE 1997383387] - PubMed
Stotsky 1977 {published data only}
    1. Stotsky BA. Relative efficacy of parenteral haloperidol and thiothixene for the emergency treatment of acutely excited and agitated patients. Diseases of the Nervous System 1977;38(12):967‐73. [MEDLINE: ; PMID 338270] - PubMed
Sutton 2001 {published data only}
    1. Sutton VK, Street JS, Kennedy JS, Feldman PD, Breier A. Superiority of olanzapine over risperidone in the control of negative symptoms of schizophrenia and related psychotic disorders in older patients. European Neuropsychopharmacology (Abstracts of the 14th Congress of the European College of Neuropsychopharmacology; 2001 Oct 13‐17; Istanbul, Turkey). 2001, issue 3:276. [14th Congress of the European College of Neuropsychopharmacology [Congress Information System]: Conifer, Excerpta Medica Medical Communications BV, 2001 P2079#]
Svestka 1972 {published data only}
    1. Svestka J, Nahunek K. A comparison of pimozide with perphenazine in the treatment of acute schizophrenic psychoses. Activitas Nervosa Superior. 1972, issue 2:93‐4. [MEDLINE: ; PMID 4557145] - PubMed
Svestka 1987 {published data only}
    1. Svestka J, Nahunek K, Rysanek R, Ceskova E, et al. Double blind comparison of isofloxythepin and haloperidol in the treatment of acute schizophrenic and schizoaffective psychoses. 29th Annual Psychopharmacology Meeting (1987, Jesenik, Czechoslovakia). Activitas Nervosa Superior. 1987, issue 3:205‐6. [PsycINFO 1989‐02545‐001]
Tench 1990 {published data only}
    1. Tench D, Soni SD, Ashwood T, Movin G. Steady‐state pharmacokinetics of controlled release and immediate release formulations of remoxipride in patients with chronic schizophrenia. Psychopharmacology 1990;101(1):132‐6. [MEDLINE: ; PMID 1971445] - PubMed
Tourlentes 1958 {published data only}
    1. Tourlentes TT, Hunsicker AL, Hurd DE. Chlorpromazine and communication process. Archives of Neurology and Psychiatry 1958;79:468‐73. [P.2.W.032] - PubMed
Tran 1999 {published data only}
    1. Tran PV, Basson BR, Kennedy JS, Beasley Jr CM, Bymaster FP, Tollefson GD. The comparative anti‐muscarinic‐like side effect profiles of olanzapine and risperidone treatment in patients with schizophrenia spectrum psychosis. Journal of the European College of Neuropsychopharmacology 1999;9:S290. [MEDLINE: ; PMID 9477007]
Vangtorp 1968 {published data only}
    1. Vangtorp A, Simmelsgaard H, Mellegaard M. Experience with a new butyrophenone derivative (Buronil). Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica Supplementum 1968;203:235‐8. [MEDLINE: ; PMID 4881877] - PubMed
Vasquez‐Gomez 2001 {published data only}
    1. Vasquez‐Gomez F. The use of midazolam for control of acutely agitated outpatients in psychiatry emergency. 7th World Congress of Biological Psychiatry; 2001 Jul 1‐6; Berlin, Germany. 2001, issue Suppl. 1. [7th World Congress of Biological Psychiatry [CD‐ROM]: Conifer, Excerpta Medica Medical Communications BV, 2001 P034‐02]
Vereecken 1972 {published data only}
    1. Vereecken JL, Tanghe A. Fluspirilene and pipothiazine undecylenate, two long‐acting injectable neuroleptics. A double‐blind controlled trial in residual schizophrenia. Psychiatria Neurologia Neurochirurgia 1972;75(2):117‐27. [MEDLINE: ; PMID 5030483] - PubMed
Vianna 1975 {published data only}
    1. Vianna Filho U, Versiani Caldeira MV, Bueno J. Preliminary report on a double blind study comparing loxapine succinate with thiothixene in chronic schizophrenic patients. Jornal Brasileiro de Psiquiatria 1975;24(1):5‐27. [PsycINFO 56‐08467]
    1. Vianna Filho U, Versiani Caldeira MV, Romildo Bueno J. The efficacy and safety of loxapine succinate in the treatment of schizophrenia: a comparative study with thiothixene. Current Therapeutic Research 1975;18(3):476‐90. - PubMed
Walker 1983 {published data only}
    1. Walker CA. A double‐blind comparative trial of the decanoates of clopenthixol and fluphenazine in the treatment of chronic schizophrenic out‐ patients. Pharmatherapeutica 1983;3(5):289‐93. [MEDLINE: ; PMID 6133287] - PubMed
Wetzel 1991 {published data only}
    1. Wetzel H, Bardeleben U, Holsboer F, Benkert O. Zotepine versus perazine in patients with paranoid schizophrenia: a double‐blind controlled trial of its effectiveness [Zotepin versus Perazin bei Patienten mit paranoider schizophrenie: eine doppelblind‐kontrollierte Wirksamkeitsprufung]. Fortschritte der Neurologie‐Psychiatrie 1991;59(Suppl 1):23‐9. [MEDLINE: ; PMID 1683336] - PubMed
Woggon 1978 {published data only}
    1. Woggon B. Effects and side‐effects of bromperidol in comparison with other antipsychotic drugs. Acta Psychiatrica Belgica 1978;78(1):155‐72. [MEDLINE: ; PMID 347878] - PubMed
    1. Woggon B, Angst J. Double‐blind comparison of bromperidol and perphenazine. International Pharmacopsychiatry 1978;13(3):165‐76. [MEDLINE: ; PMID 355182] - PubMed
Woodruff 2002 {published data only}
    1. Woodruff P. A phase IIIb, 12 week, multi‐centre, double‐blind, double‐dummy, randomised, parallel group study comparing the effects of ziprasidone (40‐80mg bid) versus olanzapine (5‐20mg od) on the quality of life in the treatment of chronic schizophrenia. National Research Register 2002. [N0164101907]
Yamawaki 1996 {published data only}
    1. Yamawaki S, Hayashi T, Yokota N, Takahashi T, Sato G, Tahara Y. Serotonin‐dopamine antagonists in elderly schizophrenics. 20th Congress of the Collegium Internationale Neuro‐psychopharmacologicum; 1996 Jun 23‐27; Melbourne, Australia. 1996. [MEDLINE: ; PMID 6021696]

References to studies awaiting assessment

Chen 2003 {published data only}
    1. Chen Chang‐yun, Chen Wei‐xiang, MAO Li. Nursing about side effects of old psychotic disease patients when taking medicine. Journal of Qilu Nursing 2003;9(01):11‐12. [MEDI0304]
Lin 2002 {published data only}
    1. LIN Jianrong, HUANG Yukun, CHEN Guozhong, et al. A control study of treating elderly patients with schizophrenia with quetiapine or perphenazine. Chinese Journal of Psychiatry 2002;35(02):99‐102. [MEDI0209]
Vencovsky 1975 {published data only}
    1. Vencovsky E, Peterova E, Baudis P. Comparison of therapeutic effect of clozapin and chlorpromazin (author's transl) [Srovnani terapeutickeho ucinku clozapinu s chlorpromazinem]. Ceskoslovenska Psychiatrie 1975;71(1):21‐6. [MEDLINE: ; PMID 1093729] - PubMed
Wang 2002 {published data only}
    1. Wang Jian, XIE Shiping. Health economic impact of novel versus older anti‐psychotic medications in schizophrenia.. Sichuan Mental Health 2002;15(01):8‐10. [MEDI0206]

References to ongoing studies

Lacro 2001 {published data only}
    1. Lacro J. Antipsychotic treatment in late life schizophrenia. CRISP database (https://www‐commons.cit.nih.gov/crisp/index.html accessed 19th February 2001) 2001. [CRISP Grant Number ‐ 5R29MH56938‐04]
Matkovits‐Gupta 1999 {published data only}
    1. Matkovits‐Gupta T//Lasser R//Young F//Happy J//Gharabawi G//Cucchiaro J//Fairweather D. Managing psychotic disorders through balanced receptor blockade: the zomaril tm clinical program. 11th World Congress of Psychiatry; 1999 Aug 6‐11; Hamburg, Germany. 1999:163. [11th World Congress of Psychiatry [CD‐ROM]: Conifer, Excerpta Medica Medical Communications BV, 1999 PO‐12‐31]
Newcomer 2001 {published data only}
    1. Newcomer JW. Neurochemical control of memory in aging schizophrenics. CRISP database (https://www‐commons.cit.nih.gov/crisp/index.html accessed 19th February 2001) 2001. [CRISP Grant Number ‐ 5K02MH01510‐04]

Additional references

Altman 1996
    1. Altman DG, Bland JM. Detecing skewness from summary information. BMJ 1996;313:1200. [OLZ020600] - PMC - PubMed
Arunpongpaisal 2003
    1. Arunpongpaisal S, Ahmed I, Aqeel N, Paholpak S. Antipsychotic drug treatment for elderly people with late‐onset schizophrenia. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2003, Issue 3. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD004162] - DOI - PubMed
Barnes 1989
    1. Barnes TRE. A rating scale for drug‐induced akathisia. British Journal of Psychiatry 1989;154:672‐76. - PubMed
Bland 1997
    1. Bland JM, Kerry SM. Statistics notes. Trials randomised in clusters. BMJ 1997;315:600. - PMC - PubMed
Bleuler 1974
    1. Bleuler M. The long term course of the schizophrenic psychoses. Psychological Medicine 1974;4(3):244‐54. - PubMed
Cates 2005
    1. Cates C. Dr Chris Cates' EBM web site ‐ Visual Rx. http://www.nntonline.net/ Accessed 8th November 2005.
Chouinard 1980
    1. Chouinard G, Ross‐Chouinard A, Annable L, Jones BD. The Extrapyramidal Symptom Rating Scale. Canadian Journal of Neurological Science 1980;7:233.
Ciompi 1980
    1. Ciompi L. The natural history of schizophrenia in the long term. British Journal of Psychiatry 1980;136:413‐20. - PubMed
Cornblatt 1989
    1. Cornblatt BA, Lenzenweger MF, Erlenmeyer‐Kimling L. The continuous performance test, identical pairs version:II. Contrasting attentional profiles in schizophrenic and depressed patients. Psychiatry Research 1989;29:65‐85. - PubMed
Czobor 1995
    1. Czobor P, Volavka J, Meibach RC. Effect of risperidone on hostility in schizophrenia. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology 1995;15(4):243‐9. - PubMed
Davidson 2000
    1. Davidson M, Harvey PD, Vervarcke J, et al. A long‐term, multicentre,open‐label study of risperidone in elderly patients with psychosis. On behalf of the Risperidone Working Group. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry 2000;15(6):506‐14. - PubMed
Devanand 1998
    1. Devanand D P, Marder K, Michaels K S, et al. A randomised, placebo‐controlled dose comparison trial of haloperidol for psychosis and disruptive behaviours in Alzheimer's disease. American Journal of Psychiatry 1998;155(November):1512‐20. - PubMed
Divine 1992
    1. Divine GW, Brown JT, Frazier LM. The unit of analysis error in studies about physicians' patient care behavior. Journal of General Internal Medicine 1992;7(6):623‐9. - PubMed
Egger 1997
    1. Egger M, Davey Smith G, Schneider M, Minder C. Bias in meta‐analysis detected by a simple, graphical test. BMJ 1997;315(7109):629‐34. - PMC - PubMed
FDA 2005
    1. Food, Drugs Administration. Alert for Healthcare Professionals ‐ Risperidone (marketed as Risperdal). http://www.fda.gov/cder/drug/InfoSheets/HCP/risperidoneHCP.htm) Accessed 2005.
Frenchman 1997
    1. Frenchman I B, Prince T. Clinical experience with risperidone, haloperidol and thioridazine for dementia‐associated behavioural disturbances. International Journal of Psychogeriatrics 1997;9(4):431‐5. - PubMed
Gulliford 1999
    1. Gulliford MC. Components of variance and intraclass correlations for the design of community‐based surveys and intervention studies: data from the Health Survey for England 1994. American Journal of Epidemiology 1999;149:876‐83. - PubMed
Guy 1976
    1. Guy W. ECDEU Assessment Manual for Psychopharmacology: Publication ADM 76‐338. Rockville, Md, US: US Department of Health, Education and Welfare, 1976:217‐22.
Heaton 1993
    1. Heaton RK, Chelune CJ, Talley JL, Kay GG, Curtiss G. Wisconsin card sorting test manual‐revised and expanded. Odessa, FL: Psychological assessment resources., 1993.
Higgins 2003
    1. Higgins JP, Thompson SG, Deeks JJ, Altman DG. Measuring inconsistency in meta‐analyses. BMJ 2003;327:557‐60. - PMC - PubMed
Higgins 2005
    1. Higgins JPT, Green S, editors. Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions 4.2.5 [updated May 2005]. The Cochrane Library. Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., 2005, issue 3.
Howard 2000
    1. Howard R, Rabins PV, Seeman MV, Jeste DV. Late‐onset schizophrenia and very late‐onset shizophrenia‐like psychosis: an international consensus. The International Late‐Onset Schizophrenia Group. American Journal of Psychiatry 2000;157:172‐78. - PubMed
Huber 1975
    1. Huber G, Gross G, Schuttler R. A long term follow up study of schizophrenia: psychiatric course of illness and prognosis. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 1975;52(1):49‐57. - PubMed
Jablensky 1986
    1. Jablensky A. Epidemiology of schizophrenia: a European perspective. Schizophrenia Bulletin 1986;12(1):52‐73. - PubMed
Jayaram 2005
    1. Jayaram MB, Hosalli P. Risperidone versus olanzapine for schizophrenia. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2005, Issue 2. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD005237.] - DOI - PubMed
Katz 1999
    1. Katz I R, Jeste D V, Minter J E & the risperidone study group. Comparison of risperidone and placebo for psychosis and behavioural disturbances associated with dementia: A randomised, double‐blind trial. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 1999;60(2):107‐15. - PubMed
Kay 1987
    1. Kay S, Fiszbein A, Opler LA. The Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS) for schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin 1987;13:261‐76. - PubMed
Kerwin 1994
    1. Kerwin RW. The new atypical antipsychotics. A lack of extrapyramidal side‐effects and new routes in schizophrenia research. British Journal of Psychiatry 1994;164:141‐48. - PubMed
Kessler 1994
    1. Kessler RC, McGonagle K A, Zhao S, et al. Lifetime and 12‐month Prevalence of DSM III R psychiatric disorders in the United States: results from the National Comorbidity Survey. Archives of General Psychiatry 1994;51(1):8‐19. - PubMed
Lezak 1997
    1. Lezak MD. Neuropsychological assessment. 3rd Edition. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997.
Marshall 2000
    1. Marshall M, Lockwood A, Bradley C, Adams C, Joy C, Fenton M. Unpublished rating scales: a major source of bias in randomised controlled trials of treatments for schizophrenia. British Journal of Psychiatry 2000;176:249‐52. - PubMed
Martindale 1999
    1. Ed K Parsitt. The complete drug reference. 2nd Edition. Pharmaceutical Press, 1999.
Moher 2001
    1. Moher D, Schulz KF, Altman D. The CONSORT statement: revised recommendations for improving the quality of reports of parallel‐group randomized trials. JAMA 2001;285:1987‐91. - PubMed
Montgomery 1979
    1. Montgomery SA, Asberg M. A new depression scale designed to be sensitive to change. British Journal of Psychiatry 1979;134:382‐89. - PubMed
Morris 1989
    1. Morris JC, Heyman A, Mohs RC. The consortium to establish a registry for alzheimer's disease (CERAD). Part I. Clinical and neuropsychological assessment of Alzheimer's disease.. Neurology 1989;39:1159‐65. - PubMed
Naguib 1995
    1. Naguib M, Levy R. Paranoid states in the elderly and late paraphrenia. In: Jacoby R, Oppenheimer C editor(s). Psychiatry in the elderly. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995:758‐78.
Overall 1962
    1. Overall LE, Gogham DR. The Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale. Psychological Reports 1962;10:799‐812.
Regier 1988
    1. Regier D A, Boyd J H, Burke J D, et al. One month prevalence of mental disorders in the United States. Archives of General Psychiatry 1988;45(11):977‐86. - PubMed
Sajatovic 2000
    1. Sajatovic M, Madhusoodanan S, Buckley P. Schizophrenia in the elderly: Guidelined for management. CNS Drugs 2000;64(2):134‐43.
Seeman 1987
    1. Seeman P. Dopamine receptors and the dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia. Synapse 1987;1(2):133‐52. - PubMed
Simpson 1970
    1. Simpson GM, Angus JWS. A rating scale for extrapyramidal side‐effects. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavia 1970;supplement 212:11‐19. - PubMed
Spreen 1998
    1. Spreen O, Strauss JS. A compendium of neuropsychological tests and norms. 2nd Edition. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998.
Tariot 1993
    1. Tariot PN, Podgorski CA, Blazina L. Mental disorders in the nursing home: another perspective. American Journal of Psychiatry 1993;150:1063‐69. - PubMed
UK ONS 2003
    1. UK Office of National Statistics. UK Census. www.staistics.gov.uk 2003.
Ukoumunne 1999
    1. Ukoumunne OC, Gulliford MC, Chinn S, Sterne JAC, Burney PGJ. Methods for evaluating area‐wide and organisation‐based interventions in health and health care: a systematic review. Health Technology Assessment 1999;3(5):iii‐92. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
UN Popin 2003
    1. United Nations Population Information Network. www.un.org./popin/data.

Substances