Skip to main page content
U.S. flag

An official website of the United States government

Dot gov

The .gov means it’s official.
Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

Https

The site is secure.
The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

Access keys NCBI Homepage MyNCBI Homepage Main Content Main Navigation
Meta-Analysis
. 2006 Apr 19;2006(2):CD001169.
doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD001169.pub3.

Amantadine and rimantadine for influenza A in adults

T Jefferson, V Demicheli, C Di Pietrantonj, D Rivetti
Meta-Analysis

Amantadine and rimantadine for influenza A in adults

T Jefferson et al. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. .

Abstract

Background: Amantadine hydrochloride and rimantadine hydrochloride have antiviral properties, but they are not widely used due to a lack of knowledge of their potential value and concerns about possible adverse effects.

Objectives: The objective of this review was to assess the efficacy, effectiveness and safety ("effects") of amantadine and rimantadine in healthy adults.

Search strategy: We searched the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL) (The Cochrane Library Issue 3, 2005), MEDLINE (2003 to August Week 4, 2005), EMBASE (October 2003 to July 2005) and reference lists of articles.

Selection criteria: Randomised and quasi-randomised studies comparing amantadine and/or rimantadine with placebo, control medication or no intervention, or comparing doses or schedules of amantadine and/or rimantadine in healthy adults.

Data collection and analysis: For prophylaxis (prevention) trials the numbers of participants with clinical influenza (influenza-like-illness or ILI) or with confirmed influenza A and adverse effects were analysed. Analysis for treatment trials was of the mean duration of fever, length of hospital stay and adverse effects.

Main results: Amantadine prevented 25% of ILI cases (95% confidence interval (CI) 13% to 36%), and 61% of influenza A cases (95% CI 35% to 76%). Amantadine reduced duration of fever by one day (95% CI 0.7 to 1.2). Rimantadine demonstrated comparable effectiveness, but there were fewer trials and the results for prophylaxis were not statistically significant. Both amantadine and rimantadine induced significant gastrointestinal adverse effects. Adverse effects of the central nervous system and study withdrawals were significantly more common with amantadine than rimantadine. Neither drug affected the rate of viral shedding from the nose and the course of asymptomatic influenza.

Authors' conclusions: Amantadine and rimantadine have comparable efficacy and effectiveness in relieving or treating symptoms of influenza A in healthy adults, although rimantadine induces fewer adverse effects than amantadine. The effectiveness of both drugs in interrupting transmission is probably low. Routine use of both drugs should be discouraged and both drugs should only be used when all other measures fail.

PubMed Disclaimer

Conflict of interest statement

None known.

Figures

1.1
1.1. Analysis
Comparison 1 Oral amantadine versus placebo (prophylaxis), Outcome 1 Influenza cases.
1.2
1.2. Analysis
Comparison 1 Oral amantadine versus placebo (prophylaxis), Outcome 2 ILI cases.
1.3
1.3. Analysis
Comparison 1 Oral amantadine versus placebo (prophylaxis), Outcome 3 Adverse effects.
1.4
1.4. Analysis
Comparison 1 Oral amantadine versus placebo (prophylaxis), Outcome 4 Viral nasal shedding or persistence in upper airways at 2 to 5 days.
1.5
1.5. Analysis
Comparison 1 Oral amantadine versus placebo (prophylaxis), Outcome 5 Influenza cases (asymptomatic).
2.1
2.1. Analysis
Comparison 2 Oral rimantadine versus placebo (prophylaxis), Outcome 1 Influenza cases.
2.2
2.2. Analysis
Comparison 2 Oral rimantadine versus placebo (prophylaxis), Outcome 2 ILI cases.
2.3
2.3. Analysis
Comparison 2 Oral rimantadine versus placebo (prophylaxis), Outcome 3 Adverse effects.
2.4
2.4. Analysis
Comparison 2 Oral rimantadine versus placebo (prophylaxis), Outcome 4 Influenza cases (asymptomatic).
3.1
3.1. Analysis
Comparison 3 Oral amantadine versus oral rimantadine (prophylaxis), Outcome 1 Influenza cases.
3.2
3.2. Analysis
Comparison 3 Oral amantadine versus oral rimantadine (prophylaxis), Outcome 2 ILI cases.
3.3
3.3. Analysis
Comparison 3 Oral amantadine versus oral rimantadine (prophylaxis), Outcome 3 Adverse effects.
4.1
4.1. Analysis
Comparison 4 Oral amantadine versus placebo (treatment), Outcome 1 Duration of fever (37 degrees centigrade or more) in days.
4.2
4.2. Analysis
Comparison 4 Oral amantadine versus placebo (treatment), Outcome 2 Cases with fever at 48 hours.
4.3
4.3. Analysis
Comparison 4 Oral amantadine versus placebo (treatment), Outcome 3 Adverse effects.
4.4
4.4. Analysis
Comparison 4 Oral amantadine versus placebo (treatment), Outcome 4 Duration of hospital stay (in days).
4.5
4.5. Analysis
Comparison 4 Oral amantadine versus placebo (treatment), Outcome 5 Viral nasal shedding or persistence in upper airways at 2 to 5 days.
5.1
5.1. Analysis
Comparison 5 Oral rimantadine versus placebo (treatment), Outcome 1 Duration of fever (37 degrees centigrade or more) in days.
5.2
5.2. Analysis
Comparison 5 Oral rimantadine versus placebo (treatment), Outcome 2 Cases with fever at 48 hours.
5.3
5.3. Analysis
Comparison 5 Oral rimantadine versus placebo (treatment), Outcome 3 Adverse effects.
5.4
5.4. Analysis
Comparison 5 Oral rimantadine versus placebo (treatment), Outcome 4 Viral nasal shedding or persistence in upper airways at 2 to 5 days.
6.1
6.1. Analysis
Comparison 6 Oral amantadine versus oral rimantadine (treatment), Outcome 1 Duration of fever (37 degrees centigrade or more) in days.
6.2
6.2. Analysis
Comparison 6 Oral amantadine versus oral rimantadine (treatment), Outcome 2 Cases with fever at 48 hours.
6.3
6.3. Analysis
Comparison 6 Oral amantadine versus oral rimantadine (treatment), Outcome 3 Adverse effects.
7.1
7.1. Analysis
Comparison 7 Oral or inhaled amantadine versus placebo or aspirin, Outcome 1 Viral nasal shedding or persistence in upper airways at 2 to 5 days.
8.1
8.1. Analysis
Comparison 8 Oral amantadine versus standard medication (treatment), Outcome 1 Duration of fever (37 degrees centigrade or more) in days.
8.2
8.2. Analysis
Comparison 8 Oral amantadine versus standard medication (treatment), Outcome 2 Adverse effect ‐ insomnia.
8.3
8.3. Analysis
Comparison 8 Oral amantadine versus standard medication (treatment), Outcome 3 Viral nasal shedding or persistence in upper airways at 2 to 5 days.
9.1
9.1. Analysis
Comparison 9 Inhaled amantadine versus placebo (treatment), Outcome 1 Symptoms score in confirmed cases (respiratory illness).
9.2
9.2. Analysis
Comparison 9 Inhaled amantadine versus placebo (treatment), Outcome 2 Symptoms score in confirmed cases (constitutional illness).
9.3
9.3. Analysis
Comparison 9 Inhaled amantadine versus placebo (treatment), Outcome 3 Adverse effects ‐ local ‐ nasal irritation.
9.4
9.4. Analysis
Comparison 9 Inhaled amantadine versus placebo (treatment), Outcome 4 Viral nasal shedding or persistence in upper airways at 2 to 5 days.
See this image and copyright information in PMC

Update of

References

References to studies included in this review

Brady 1990 {published data only}
    1. Brady MT, Sears SD, Pacini DL, Samorodin R, DePamphilis J, Oakes M, et al. Safety and prophylactic efficacy of low‐dose rimantadine in adults during an influenza A epidemic Antimicrobial. Agents and Chemotherapy 1990;34:1633‐66. - PMC - PubMed
Callmander 1968 {published data only}
    1. Callmander E, Hellgren L. Amantadine hydrochloride as a prophylactic in respiratory infections. A double‐blind investigation of its clinical use and serology. Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 1968;8:186‐9. - PubMed
Dolin 1982 {published data only}
    1. Dolin R, Reichman RC, Madore HP, Maynard R, Linton PN, Webber‐Jones J. A controlled trial of amantadine and rimantadine in the prophylaxis of influenza A infection. New England Journal of Medicine 1982;307:580‐4. - PubMed
Galbraith 1971 {published data only}
    1. Galbraith AW, Oxford JS, Schild GC, Potter CW, Watson GI. Therapeutic effect of 1‐adamantanamine hydrochloride in naturally occurring influenza A 2/Hong Kong infection ‐ a controlled double‐blind study. Lancet 1971;2:113‐5. - PubMed
Hayden 1980 {published data only}
    1. Hayden FG, Hall WJ, Douglas RG. Therapeutic effects of aerosolized amantadine in naturally acquired infection due to influenza A virus. Journal of Infectious Diseases 1980;141:535‐42. - PubMed
Hayden 1981 {published data only}
    1. Hayden FG, Gwaltney JM, Castle RL, Adams KF, Giordani B. Comparative toxicity of amantadine hydrochloride and rimantadine hydrochloride in healthy adults. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 1981;19:226‐33. - PMC - PubMed
Hayden 1986 {published data only}
    1. Hayden FG, Monto AS. Oral rimantadine hydrochloride therapy of influenza A virus H3 N2 subtype infection in adults. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 1986;29:339‐41. - PMC - PubMed
Hornick 1969a {published data only}
    1. Hornick RB, Togo Y, Mahler S, Iezzoni D. Evaluation of amantadine hydrochloride in the treatment of A2 influenzal disease. Bulletin of the World Health Organization 1969;41:671‐6. - PMC - PubMed
Hornick 1969b {published data only}
    1. Hornick RB, Togo Y, Mahler S, Iezzoni D. Evaluation of amantadine hydrochloride in the treatment of A2 influenzal disease. Bulletin of the World Health Organization 1969;41:671‐6. - PMC - PubMed
Hornick 1969c {published data only}
    1. Hornick RB, Togo Y, Mahler S, Iezzoni D. Evaluation of amantadine hydrochloride in the treatment of A2 influenzal disease. Bulletin of the World Health Organization 1969;41:671‐6. - PMC - PubMed
Hornick 1969d {published data only}
    1. Hornick RB, Togo Y, Mahler S, Iezzoni D. Evaluation of amantadine hydrochloride in the treatment of A2 influenzal disease. Bulletin of the World Health Organization 1969;41(Trial no AMANT18):671‐6. - PMC - PubMed
Ito 2000 {published data only}
    1. Ito S, Iijima N, Kanemaki K, Hayashi S, Hujii S, Watanabe T, et al. Therapeutic efficacy of amantadine hydrochloride in patients with epidemic influenza A virus infection. Nihon Kokyuki Gakkai zasshi (The Journal of the Japanese Respiratory Society) 2000;38(12):897‐902. - PubMed
Kantor 1980 {published data only}
    1. Kantor RJ, Potts DW, Stevens D, Noble GR. Prevention of influenza A/USSR/77 (H1N1): an evaluation of the side effects and efficacy of amantadine in recruits at Fort Sam Houston. Military Medicine 1980;145:312‐5. - PubMed
Kitamoto 1968 {published data only}
    1. Kitamoto O. Therapeutic effectiveness of amantadine hydrochloride in influenza A2 ‐ double blind studies. Japanese Journal of Tuberculosis and Chest Diseases 1968;15:17‐26. - PubMed
Kitamoto 1971 {published data only}
    1. Kitamoto O. Therapeutic effectiveness of amantadine hydrochloride in naturally occurring Hong Kong influenza ‐ double‐blind studies. Japanese Journal of Tuberculosis and Chest Diseases 1971;17:1‐7. - PubMed
Knight 1970 {published data only}
    1. Knight V, Fedson D, Baldini J, Douglas RG, Couch RB. Amantadine therapy of epidemic influenza A2 (Hong Kong). Infection and Immunity 1970;1:200‐4. - PMC - PubMed
Máté 1970 {published data only}
    1. Máté J, Simon M, Juvancz I, Takátsy G, Hollós I, Farkas E. Prophylactic use of amantadine during Hong Kong influenza epidemic. Acta Microbiologica Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae 1970;17:285‐96. - PubMed
Millet 1982 {published data only}
    1. Millet VM, Dreisbach M, Bryson YJ. Double‐blind controlled study of central nervous system side effects of amantadine, rimantadine and chlorpheniramine. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 1982;21(1):1‐4. - PMC - PubMed
Monto 1979 {published data only}
    1. Monto AS, Gunn RA, Bandyk MG, King CL. Prevention of Russian influenza by amantadine. Journal of the American Medical Association 1979;241:1003‐7. - PubMed
Muldoon 1976 {published data only}
    1. Muldoon RL, Stanley ED, Jackson GG. Use and withdrawal of amantadine chemoprophylaxis during epidemic influenza A. American Review of Respiratory Disease 1976;113:487‐91. - PubMed
Nafta 1970 {published data only}
    1. Nafta I, Turcanu AG, Braun I, Companetz W, Simionescu A, Birţ E, et al. Administration of amantadine for the prevention of Hong Kong influenza. Bulletin of the World Health Organization 1970;42(3):423‐7. - PMC - PubMed
Oker‐Blom 1970 {published data only}
    1. Oker‐Blom N, Hovi T, Leinikki P, Palosuo T, Pettersson R, Suni J. Protection of man from natural infection with influenza A2 Hong Kong virus by amantadine: a controlled field trial. British Medical Journal 1970;3:676‐8. - PMC - PubMed
Payler 1984 {published data only}
    1. Payler DK, Purdham PA. Influenza A prophylaxis with amantadine in a boarding school. Lancet 1984;1:502‐4. - PubMed
Peckinpaugh 1970a {published data only}
    1. Peckinpaugh RO, Askin FB, Pierce WE, Edwards EA, Johnson DP, Jackson GG. Field studies with amantadine: acceptability and protection. AMANTADINE 42. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1970;173:62‐73.
Peckinpaugh 1970b {published data only}
    1. Peckinpaugh RO, Askin FB, Pierce WE, Edwards EA, Johnson DP, Jackson GG. Field studies with amantadine: acceptability and protection. AMANTADINE 42. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1970;173:62‐73.
Pettersson 1980 {published data only}
    1. Pettersson RF, Hellstrom PE, Penttinen K, Pyhala R, Tokola O, Vartio T, et al. Evaluation of amantadine in the prophylaxis of influenza A (H1N1) virus infection: a controlled field trial among young adults and high‐risk patients. Journal of Infectious Diseases 1980;142:377‐83. - PubMed
Plesnik 1977 {published data only}
    1. Plesnik V, Heinz F, Bindas B, Cechová D, Eliásová J, Galetková A, et al. Controlled study of influenza prophylaxis using amantadine VUFB. Chzekolsovak Epidemiologie Mikrobiologie, Immunologie 1977;26(4):216‐26. - PubMed
Quarles 1981 {published data only}
    1. Quarles JM, Couch RB, Cate TR, Goswick CB. Comparison of amantadine and rimantadine for prevention of type A (Russian) influenza. Antiviral Research 1981;1:149‐55. - PubMed
Rabinovich 1969 {published data only}
    1. Rabinovich S, Baldini JT, Bannister R. Treatment of influenza. The therapeutic efficacy of rimantadine HC1 in a naturally occurring influenza A2 outbreak. The American Journal of the Medical Sciences 1969;257(5):328‐35. - PubMed
Reuman 1989 {published data only}
    1. Reuman PD, Bernstein DI, Keefer MC, Young EC, Sherwood JR, Schiff GM. Efficacy and safety of low dosage amantadine hydrochloride as prophylaxis for influenza A. Antiviral Research 1989;11:27‐40. - PubMed
Schapira 1971 {published data only}
    1. Schapira M, Oxford JS, Galbraith AW. A study of 1‐adamantamine hydrochloride during the 1970 Hong Kong influenza epidemic. Journal of the Royal College of General Practitioners 1971;21:695‐7. - PMC - PubMed
Smorodintsev 1970 {published data only}
    1. Smorodintsev AA, Karpuhin GI, Zlydnikov DM, Malyseva AM, Svecova EG, Burov SA, et al. The prophylactic effectiveness of amantadine hydrochloride in an epidemic of Hong Kong influenza in Leningrad in 1969. Bulletin of the World Health Organization 1970;42:865‐72. - PMC - PubMed
van Voris 1981 {published data only}
    1. Voris LP, Betts RF, Hayden FG, Christmas WA, Douglas RG. Successful treatment of naturally occurring influenza A/USSR/77 H1N1. Journal of the American Medical Association 1981;245:1128‐31. - PubMed
Wendel 1966 {published data only}
    1. Wendel HA, Snyder MT, Pell S. Trial of amantadine in epidemic influenza. Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 1966;7:38‐43. - PubMed
Wingfield 1969 {published data only}
    1. Wingfield WL, Pollack D, Grunert RR. Therapeutic efficacy of amantadine HC1 and rimantadine HC1 in naturally occurring influenza A2 respiratory illness in man. New England Journal of Medicine 1969;281:579‐84. - PubMed
Younkin 1983 {published data only}
    1. Younkin SW, Betts RF, Roth FK, Douglas RG. Reduction in fever and symptoms in young adults with influenza A/Brazil/78 H1N1 infection after treatment with aspirin or amantadine. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 1983;23:577‐82. - PMC - PubMed

References to studies excluded from this review

Aoki 1986 {published data only}
    1. Aoki FY, Stiver HG, Sitar DS, Hammond GW, Milley EV, Vermeersch C, et al. Potential of influenza vaccine and amantadine to prevent influenza A illness in Canadian forces personnel 1980‐1983. Military Medicine 1986;151:459‐65. - PMC - PubMed
Atmar 1990 {published data only}
    1. Atmar RL, Greenberg SB, Quarles JM, Wilson SZ, Tyler B, Feldman S, et al. Safety and pharmacokinetics of rimantadine small‐particle aerosol. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 1990;34:2228‐33. - PMC - PubMed
Baker 1969 {published data only}
    1. Baker LM, Shock MP, Iezzoni DG. The therapeutic efficacy of Symmetrel (amantadine hydrochloride) in naturally occurring influenza A2 respiratory illness. Journal of the American Osteopathic Association 1969;68:1244‐50. - PubMed
Bricaire 1990 {published data only}
    1. Bricaire F, Hannoun C, Boissel JP. Prevention of influenza A. Effectiveness and tolerance of rimantadine hydrochloride [Prévention de la grippe A. Efficacité et tolérance du chlorhydrate de rimantadine]. Presse Medicale 1990;19(2):69‐72. - PubMed
Bryson 1980 {published data only}
    1. Bryson YJ, Monahan C, Pollack M, Shields WD. A prospective double‐blind study of side effects associated with the administration of amantadine for influenza A virus prophylaxis. Journal of Infectious Diseases 1980;141:543‐7. - PubMed
Clover 1986 {published data only}
    1. Clover RD, Crawford SA, Abell TD, et al. Effectiveness of rimantadine prophylaxis of children within families. American Journal of Diseases of Children 1986;140:706‐9. - PubMed
Crawford 1988 {published data only}
    1. Crawford SA, Clover RD, Abell TD, Ramsey CN, Glezen WP, Couch RB. Rimantadine prophylaxis in children: a follow‐up study. Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal 1988;7:379‐83. - PubMed
Dawkins 1968 {published data only}
    1. Dawkins AT Jr, Gallager LR, Togo Y, Hornick RB, Harris BA. Studies on induced influenza in man. II. Double‐blind study designed to assess the prophylactic efficacy of an analogue of amantadine hydrochloride. JAMA 1968;203(13):1095‐9. - PubMed
Finklea 1967 {published data only}
    1. Finklea JF, Hennessy AV, Davenport FM. A field trial of amantadine prophylaxis in naturally‐occurring acute respiratory illness. American Journal of Epidemiology 1967;85(3):403‐12. - PubMed
Galbraith 1969 {published data only}
    1. Galbraith AW, Oxford JS, Schild GC, Watson GI. Study of 1‐adamantanamine hydrochloride used prophylactically during the Hong Kong influenza epidemic in the family environment. Bulletin of the World Health Organization 1969;41:677‐82. - PMC - PubMed
Galbraith 1973 {published data only}
    1. Galbraith AW, Schild GC, Potter CW, Watson GI. The therapeutic effect of amantadine in influenza occurring during the winter of 1971‐2 assessed by double‐blind study. Journal of the Royal College of General Practitioners 1973;23:34‐7. - PMC - PubMed
Hayden 1983 {published data only}
    1. Hayden FG, Hoffman HE, Spyker DA. Differences in side effects of amantadine hydrochloride and rimantadine hydrochloride relate to differences in pharmacokinetics. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 1983;231(3):458‐64. - PMC - PubMed
Hayden 1985 {published data only}
    1. Hayden FG, Minocha A, Spyker DA, Hoffman HE. Comparative single‐dose pharmacokinetics of amantadine hydrochloride and rimantadine hydrochloride in young and elderly adults. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 1985;28(2):216‐21. - PMC - PubMed
Hayden 1989 {published data only}
    1. Hayden FG, Belshe RB, Clover RD, Hay AJ, Oakes MG, Soo W. Emergence and apparent transmission of rimantadine‐resistant influenza A virus in families. New England Journal of Medicine 1989;321:1696‐702. - PubMed
Hayden 1991 {published data only}
    1. Hayden FG, Sperber SJ, Belshe RB, Clover RD, Hay AJ, Pyke S. Recovery of drug‐resistant influenza A virus during therapeutic use of rimantadine. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 1991;35:1741‐7. - PMC - PubMed
Knight 1969 {published data only}
    1. Knight V, Fedson D, Baldini J, Douglas RG, Couch RB. Amantadine therapy of epidemic influenza A2‐Hong Kong. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 1969;9:370‐1. - PubMed
O'Donoghue 1971 {published data only}
    1. O'Donoghue JM, Ray CG, Terry DW, Beaty HN. Prevention of nosocomial influenza infection with Amantadine. American Journal of Epidemiology 1972;97:276‐82. - PubMed
Rose 1980 {published data only}
    1. Rose HJ. The use of amantadine and influenza vaccine in a type A influenza epidemic in a boarding school. Journal of the Royal College of General Practitioners 1980;30:619‐21. - PMC - PubMed
Smorodinstev 1970a {published data only}
    1. Smorodintsev AA, Karpuhin GI, Zlydnikov DM, Malyseva AM, Svecova EG, Burov SA, et al. The prospect of amantadine for prevention of influenza A2/Hong Kong epidemics in January‐February 1969 in Leningrad. Annals of the New York Academy of Science 1970;173:44‐73.
Smorodintsev 1970b {published and unpublished data}
    1. Smorodintsev AA, Zlydnikov DM, Kiseleva AM, Romanov JA, Kazantev AP, Rumovsky VI. Evaluation of amantadine in artificially induced A2 and B influenza. JAMA 1970;213:1448‐54. - PubMed
Togo 1968 {published data only}
    1. Togo Y, Hornick RB, Dawkins AT Jr. Studies on induced influenza in man. I. Double‐blind studies designed to assess prophylactic efficacy of amantadine hydrochloride against a2/Rockville/1/65 strain. JAMA 1968;203(13):1089‐94. - PubMed
Togo 1970 {published data only}
    1. Togo Y, Hornick RB, Felitti VJ, Kaufman ML, Dawkins AT, Kilpe VE, et al. Evaluation of therapeutic efficacy of amantadine in patients with naturally occurring A2 influenza. JAMA 1970;211:1149‐56. - PubMed

References to studies awaiting assessment

Tkaczewski 1972 {published data only}
    1. Tkaczewski W, Niedzielska H, Denys A, Bochenska J, Kulawczyk M, Szymanski L, et al. Clinical evaluation of remantadine in the treatment of influenza. Polski Tygodnik Lekarski 1972;27(42):1650‐2. - PubMed

Additional references

Aoki 1998
    1. Aoki FY. Amantadine and rimantadine. In: Nicholson, Hay, Webster editor(s). Textbook of Influenza. London: Blackwell, 1998:457‐76.
ARI Group 1998
    1. Cochrane Acute Respiratory Infections Group. Search strategy for specialised register. The Cochrane Library. Oxford: Update Software, 1998; Vol. Issue 1.
Bright 2005
    1. Bright RA, Medina MJ, Xu X, Perez‐Oronoz G, Wallis TR, Davis XM, et al. Incidence of adamantane resistance among influenza A (H3N2) viruses isolated worldwide from 1994 to 2005: a cause for concern. Lancet 2005;366:1175‐81. - PubMed
DerSimonian 1986
    1. DerSimonian R, Laird N. Meta‐analysis in clinical trials. Controlled Clinical Trials 1986;7:177‐88. - PubMed
Higgins 2008
    1. Higgins JPT, Green S (editors). Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions Version 5.0.0 [updated February 2008]. In: Higgins JPT, Green S editor(s). The Cochrane Collaboration. John Wiley and Sons, Ltd, 2008.
RevMan 2008 [Computer program]
    1. The Nordic Cochrane Centre, The Cochrane Collaboration. Review Manager (RevMan). Version 5.0. Copenhagen: The Nordic Cochrane Centre, The Cochrane Collaboration, 2008.
Schulz 1995
    1. Schulz KF, Chalmers I, Hayes RJ, Altman DG. Empirical evidence of bias. Dimensions of methodological quality associated with estimates of treatment effects in controlled trials. JAMA 1995;273:408‐12. - PubMed
WHO 2005
    1. World Health Organisation. Global agenda on influenza surveillance and control. http://www.who.int/csr/disease/influenza/csrinfluenzaglobalagenda/en/pri... (accessed 10 October 2005).

References to other published versions of this review

Jefferson 1999
    1. Jefferson TO, Demicheli V, Deeks JJ, Rivetti D. Amantadine and rimantadine for preventing and treating influenza A in adults. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 1999, Issue 2. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD001169.pub3] - DOI
Jefferson 2002
    1. Jefferson TO, Demicheli V, Deeks JJ, Rivetti D. Amantadine and rimantadine for preventing and treating influenza A in adults. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2002, Issue 3. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD001169.pub3] - DOI - PubMed
Jefferson 2004
    1. Jefferson TO, Demicheli V, Deeks JJ, Rivetti D. Amantadine and rimantadine for preventing and treating influenza A in adults. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2004, Issue 3. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD001169.pub3] - DOI - PubMed
Jefferson 2006
    1. Jefferson T, Demicheli V, Rivetti D, Jones M, Pietrantonj C, Rivetti A. Antivirals for influenza in healthy adults: systematic review. The Lancet 2006;367(9507):303‐13. [DOI: 10.1016/S0140‐6736(06) 67970‐1.] - PubMed