Neuronal macroautophagy: from development to degeneration

Abstract

Macroautophagy, a lysosomal pathway responsible for the turnover of organelles and long-lived proteins, has been regarded mainly as an inducible process in neurons, which is mobilized in states of stress and injury. New studies show, however, that macroautophagy is also constitutively active in healthy neurons and is vital to cell survival. Neurons in the brain, unlike cells in the periphery, are protected from large-scale autophagy induction because they can use several different energy sources optimally, receive additional nutrients and neurotrophin support from glial cells, and benefit from hypothalamic regulation of peripheral nutrient supplies. Due to its exceptional efficiency, constitutive autophagy in healthy neurons proceeds in the absence of easily detectable autophagic vacuole intermediates. These intermediates can accumulate rapidly, however, when late steps in the autophagic process are blocked. Autophagic vacuoles also accumulate abnormally in affected neurons of several major neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease, where they have been linked to various aspects of disease pathogenesis including neuronal cell death. The build-up of autophagic vacuoles in these neurological disorders and others may reflect either heightened autophagy induction, impairment in later digestive steps in the autophagy pathway, or both. Determining the basis for AV accumulation is critical for understanding the pathogenic significance of autophagy in a given pathologic state and for designing possible therapies based on modulating autophagy. In this review, we discuss the special features of autophagy regulation in the brain, its suspected roles in neurodevelopment and plasticity, and recent progress toward understanding how dysfunctional autophagy contributes to neurodegenerative disease.