Dopability, intrinsic conductivity, and nonstoichiometry of transparent conducting oxides

Abstract

Existing defect models for In(2)O(3) and ZnO are inconclusive about the origin of conductivity, nonstoichiometry, and coloration. We apply systematic corrections to first-principles calculated formation energies Delta H, and validate our theoretical defect model against measured defect and carrier densities. We find that (i) intrinsic acceptors ("electron killers") have a high Delta H explaining high n-dopability, (ii) intrinsic donors ("electron producers") have either a high Delta H or deep levels, and do not cause equilibrium-stable conductivity, (iii) the O vacancy V(O) has a low Delta H leading to O deficiency, and (iv) V(O) has a metastable shallow state, explaining the paradoxical coexistence of coloration and conductivity.