African elephants have expectations about the locations of out-of-sight family members

Abstract

Monitoring the location of conspecifics may be important to social mammals. Here, we use an expectancy-violation paradigm to test the ability of African elephants (Loxodonta africana) to keep track of their social companions from olfactory cues. We presented elephants with samples of earth mixed with urine from female conspecifics that were either kin or unrelated to them, and either unexpected or highly predictable at that location. From behavioural measurements of the elephants' reactions, we show that African elephants can recognize up to 17 females and possibly up to 30 family members from cues present in the urine-earth mix, and that they keep track of the location of these individuals in relation to themselves.

Figure 1

Number of trunk reaches made towards a urine–earth sample by the first female to pass. Median values, inter-quartile range and range are shown. Asterisks denote significant differences. (Both the absent kin and behind condition were also significantly different from the control sample.)

Figure 2

Mean duration of interest in the sample, calculated from the duration of interest shown by each individual female in the group. Median values, inter-quartile range and range are shown; outliers are indicated by the circles.