Three-dimensional ontogenetic shape changes in the human cranium during the fetal period

Abstract

Knowledge of the pattern of human craniofacial development in the fetal period is important for understanding the mechanisms underlying the emergence of variations in human craniofacial morphology. However, the precise character of the prenatal ontogenetic development of the human cranium has yet to be fully established. This study investigates ontogenetic changes in cranial shape in the fetal period, as exhibited in Japanese fetal specimens housed at Kyoto University. A total of 31 human fetal specimens aged from approximately 8 to 42 weeks of gestation underwent helical computed tomographic scanning, and 68 landmarks were digitized on the internal and external surfaces of the extracted crania. Ontogenetic shape change was then analyzed cross-sectionally and three-dimensionally using a geometric morphometric technique. The results of the present study are generally consistent with previously reported findings. It was found that during the prenatal ontogenetic process, the growth rate of the length of the cranium is greater than that of the width and height, and the growth rate of the length of the posterior cranial base is smaller than that of the anterior cranial base. Furthermore, it was observed that the change in shape of the human viscerocranium is smaller than that of the neurocranium during the fetal period, and that concurrently the basicranium extends by approximately 8 degrees due to the relative elevation of the basilar and lateral parts of occipital bone. These specific growth-related changes are the opposite of those reported for the postnatal period. Our findings therefore indicate that the allometric pattern of the human cranium is not a simple continuous transformation, but changes drastically from before to after birth.

Fig. 1

Three-dimensional surface models of human fetal crania representing different gestational ages. Scale bar = 10 cm. The leftmost cranium corresponds to an approximately 8-week-old fetus, and the rightmost corresponds to an approximately 42-week-old fetus.

Fig. 2

Landmarks and wireframe used in the study. (A) Landmarks. (B) Wireframe approximately defining bone boundaries and three midsagittal points used for calculating the CBA (corresponding to the nasion, sella and basion). See Table 1 for the landmark definitions and text for the calculation of the coordinates of the points. Crania redrawn from Gray (1995).

Fig. 3

Relationship between gestational age and CS. Seven fetal specimens whose medical histories were not available are not included. Age and CS are significantly correlated.

Fig. 4

Principal components analysis of the fetal crania. (A) Plots of the PC1 vs. PC2 scores. Black diamond = female, white diamond = male. (B) The relationship between CS and PC1. These variables are significantly correlated.

Fig. 5

Shape change of the fetal cranium. (A) Sagittal view. (B) Horizontal view. (C) Coronal view. Wireframes drawn by dashed and solid lines correspond to an 8-week-old and a 42-week-old fetus, respectively.

Fig. 6

Relationship between CS and CBA. These variables are significantly correlated (r = 0.51, P < 0.01).