Pathogenesis of ganglion "cell death" in glaucoma and neuroprotection: focus on ganglion cell axonal mitochondria

Abstract

Retinal ganglion cell axons within the globe are functionally specialized being richly provided with many mitochondria. The mitochondria produce the high energy requirement for nerve conduction in the unmyelinated part of the ganglion cell axons. We have proposed that in the initiation of glaucoma, an alteration in the quality of blood flow dynamics in the optic nerve head causes a compromise in the retinal ganglion cell axon energy requirement, rendering the ganglion cells susceptible to additional insults. One secondary insult might be light entering the eye to further affect ganglion cell axon mitochondrial function. Other insults to the ganglion cells might be substances (e.g., glutamate, nitric oxide, TNF-alpha) released from astrocytes. These effects ultimately cause ganglion cell death because of the inability of mitochondria to maintain normal function. We therefore suggest that ganglion cell apoptosis in glaucoma is both receptor and mitochondrial mediated. Agents targeted specifically at enhancing ganglion cell mitochondrial energy production should therefore be beneficial in a disease like glaucoma. Ganglion cell death in glaucoma might therefore, in principle, not be unlike the pathophysiology of numerous neurological disorders involving energy dysregulation and oxidative stress. The trigger(s) for ganglion cell apoptosis in glaucoma is/are likely to be multifactorial, and the rationale for targeting impaired energy production as a possibility of improving a patient's quality of life is based on logic derived from laboratory studies where neuronal apoptosis is shown to occur via different mechanisms. Light-induced neuronal apoptosis is likely to be more relevant to ganglion cell death in glaucoma than, for example, neuronal apoptosis associated with Parkinson's disease. Logic suggests that enhancing mitochondrial function generally will slow down ganglion cell apoptosis and therefore benefit glaucoma patients. On the basis of our laboratory studies, we suggest that supplements such as creatine, alpha-lipoic acid, nicotinamide, and epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG), all of which counteract oxidative stress induced by light and other triggers, are worthy of consideration for the treatment of such patients as they can be taken orally to reach the retina without having significant side effects.