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. 2008 Oct;116(10):1285-93.
doi: 10.1289/ehp.11241. Epub 2008 May 19.

Lead exposures in U.S. Children, 2008: implications for prevention

Ronnie Levin  1 , Mary Jean Brown, Michael E Kashtock, David E Jacobs, Elizabeth A Whelan, Joanne Rodman, Michael R Schock, Alma Padilla, Thomas Sinks
Affiliations

Lead exposures in U.S. Children, 2008: implications for prevention

Ronnie Levin et al. Environ Health Perspect. 2008 Oct.

Erratum in

  • Environ Health Perspect. 2008 Oct;116(10):1291

Abstract

Objective: We reviewed the sources of lead in the environments of U.S. children, contributions to children's blood lead levels, source elimination and control efforts, and existing federal authorities. Our context is the U.S. public health goal to eliminate pediatric elevated blood lead levels (EBLs) by 2010.

Data sources: National, state, and local exposure assessments over the past half century have identified risk factors for EBLs among U.S. children, including age, race, income, age and location of housing, parental occupation, and season.

Data extraction and synthesis: Recent national policies have greatly reduced lead exposure among U.S. children, but even very low exposure levels compromise children's later intellectual development and lifetime achievement. No threshold for these effects has been demonstrated. Although lead paint and dust may still account for up to 70% of EBLs in U.S. children, the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention estimates that >or=30% of current EBLs do not have an immediate lead paint source, and numerous studies indicate that lead exposures result from multiple sources. EBLs and even deaths have been associated with inadequately controlled sources including ethnic remedies and goods, consumer products, and food-related items such as ceramics. Lead in public drinking water and in older urban centers remain exposure sources in many areas.

Conclusions: Achieving the 2010 goal requires maintaining current efforts, especially programs addressing lead paint, while developing interventions that prevent exposure before children are poisoned. It also requires active collaboration across all levels of government to identify and control all potential sources of lead exposure, as well as primary prevention.

Keywords: children’s health; environmental health; lead poisoning; primary prevention.

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Figures

Figure 1
Figure 1
Increases in lead production and corresponding increases in lead emissions. Data from Davidson and Rabinowitz (1992) and U.S. EPA (1986).
Figure 2
Figure 2
Maximum quarterly mean air lead concentrations, 1980–2006, showing 95% decrease 1980–2003 and slight increase 2004–2006; national trend based on 15 sites. Reprinted from U.S. EPA (2007a).
Figure 3
Figure 3
Percentage of U.S. children, 1–5 years of age, with EBLs ≥10 μg/dL (95% confidence intervals), by race/ethnicity. Data from CDC (2005b).
See this image and copyright information in PMC

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