Executive functioning at ages 5 and 7 years in children with prenatal cocaine exposure

Abstract

This prospective longitudinal study evaluated the effect of prenatal cocaine exposure (PCE) on executive functioning in 5- and 7-year-old children. In total, 154 pregnant cocaine users, identified by urine toxicology and structured interviews, were matched to 154 nonusers. Children were assessed by certified masked evaluators, and caregivers were interviewed by experienced staff during home visits. In approximately 90% of the surviving sample tested at ages 5 and 7 years, structural equation modeling demonstrated that an increased head circumference at birth (adjusted for gestation) significantly predicted better performance on executive functioning, and that PCE was indirectly related to executive functioning through its significant negative effect on head circumference at birth. At age 5 years, quality of environment also predicted executive functioning, and the R(2) for the total model was 0.24. At 7 years, caregiver functioning predicted quality of environment, which in turn was positively related to executive functioning, and girls had better executive functioning. The total model at age 7 years accounted for 30% of the variance in executive functioning.

Fig. 1

Theoretical model developed to predict executive functioning at 5 and 7 years old. Arrows represent the direction of hypothesized relationships; double-ended arrows depict variables allowed to covary.

Fig. 2

SEM predicting executive functioning at age 5 years. Solid lines represent significant paths, while dashed lines indicate hypothesized but nonsignificant paths. Paths from latent constructs to indicators are factor loadings.

Fig. 3

SEM predicting executive functioning at age 7 years. Solid lines represent significant paths, while dashed lines indicate hypothesized but nonsignificant paths. Paths from latent constructs to indicators are factor loadings.