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. 2009 May;138(2):161-76.
doi: 10.1037/a0015527.

Long-term memory for the terrorist attack of September 11: flashbulb memories, event memories, and the factors that influence their retention

William Hirst  1 , Elizabeth A Phelps, Randy L Buckner, Andrew E Budson, Alexandru Cuc, John D E Gabrieli, Marcia K Johnson, Cindy Lustig, Keith B Lyle, Mara Mather, Robert Meksin, Karen J Mitchell, Kevin N Ochsner, Daniel L Schacter, Jon S Simons, Chandan J Vaidya
Affiliations

Long-term memory for the terrorist attack of September 11: flashbulb memories, event memories, and the factors that influence their retention

William Hirst et al. J Exp Psychol Gen. 2009 May.

Abstract

More than 3,000 individuals from 7 U.S. cities reported on their memories of learning of the terrorist attacks of September 11, as well as details about the attack, 1 week, 11 months, and/or 35 months after the assault. Some studies of flashbulb memories examining long-term retention show slowing in the rate of forgetting after a year, whereas others demonstrate accelerated forgetting. This article indicates that (a) the rate of forgetting for flashbulb memories and event memory (memory for details about the event itself) slows after a year, (b) the strong emotional reactions elicited by flashbulb events are remembered poorly, worse than nonemotional features such as where and from whom one learned of the attack, and (c) the content of flashbulb and event memories stabilizes after a year. The results are discussed in terms of community memory practices.

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Figures

Figure 1
Figure 1. Mediation analysis following Baron & Kenny (1986)
A four step process with (1) regression coefficient from analysis with level of ensuing conversation as the dependent variable and personal loss as predictor, (2) regression coefficient from analysis with event memory as the dependent variable and level of ensuing conversation as the predictor, (3) regression coefficient from analysis with event memory as the dependent variable and personal loss as the predictor, and (4) regression coefficients from analysis with event memory as the dependent variable and both level of ensuing conversation and personal loss/inconvenience as predictors. These latter coefficients are in parentheses. Analysis for the 11-month period is in regular type. Analysis for 35-month period is in bold type. Partial mediation occurs if the regression coefficient for personal loss associated calculated in Step 4 is less than the related coefficient calculated in Step 3.
Figure 2
Figure 2
For flashbulb memories, the proportion of consistent responses on Survey 2 that remained consistent on Survey 3 (as indicated by consistency/accuracy), as well as the proportion of inconsistent responses on Survey 2 corrected, repeated, or given another response on Survey 3. For event memory, the proportion of accurate responses on Survey 1 accurate on Survey 2 (S2: consistency/accuracy), the proportion of accurate responses on Survey 2 that were also accurate on Survey 3 (S3: consistency/accuracy), the proportion of inaccurate responses on Survey 1 corrected, repeated or given another response on Survey 2, and the proportion of inaccurate responses on Survey 2 corrected, repeated or given another response on Survey 3. Standard deviations are expressed in error bars.
Figure 3
Figure 3
Relation between media coverage and memory accuracy for facts about the Challenger Explosion and the Terrorist Attack of September 11. Proportions of correctly remembered details were converted into z-scores, as were the frequencies with which an event was covered in the New York Times.
See this image and copyright information in PMC

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