Genetic diversity among food-borne and waterborne norovirus strains causing outbreaks in Sweden

Abstract

A total of 101 food-borne and waterborne outbreaks that were caused by norovirus and that resulted in more than 4,100 cases of illness were reported to the Swedish Institute for Infectious Disease Control from January 2002 to December 2006. Sequence and epidemiological data for isolates from 73 outbreaks were analyzed. In contrast to health care-related outbreaks, no clear seasonality could be observed. Sequence analysis showed a high degree of genetic variation among the noroviruses detected. Genogroup II (GII) viruses were detected in 70% of the outbreaks, and of those strains, strains of GII.4 were the most prevalent and were detected in 25% of all outbreaks. The GII.4 variants detected in global outbreaks in health care settings during 2002, 2004, and 2006 were also found in the food-borne outbreaks. GI strains totally dominated as the cause of water-related (drinking and recreational water) outbreaks and were found in 12 of 13 outbreaks. In 14 outbreaks, there were discrepancies among the polymerase and capsid genotype results. In four outbreaks, the polymerase of the recombinant GII.b virus occurred together with the GII.1 or GII.3 capsids, while the GII.7 polymerase occurred together with the GII.6 and GII.7 capsids. Mixed infections were observed in six outbreaks; four of these were due to contaminated water, and two were due to imported frozen berries. Contaminated food and water serve as important reservoirs for noroviruses. The high degree of genetic diversity found among norovirus strains causing food-borne and waterborne infections stresses the importance of the use of broad reaction detection methods when such outbreaks are investigated.

FIG. 1.

Number of food-borne and waterborne outbreaks caused by NoV reported to SMI each month, with and without genotyping results. It proved possible to genotype samples from 73 of 101 NoV-positive outbreaks.

FIG. 2.

Phylogenetic dendrograms based on 234-nucleotide fragments of the polymerase gene for GI and GII NoV strains (A) or 291-nucleotide fragments (GI) (B) or 282-nucleotide fragments (GII) (C) of the capsid gene supplemented with reference strains. Waterborne outbreaks are marked DW for drinking water and RW for recreational water. When two genotypes were detected within one outbreak, they are given the suffixes _1 and _2.

FIG. 2.

Phylogenetic dendrograms based on 234-nucleotide fragments of the polymerase gene for GI and GII NoV strains (A) or 291-nucleotide fragments (GI) (B) or 282-nucleotide fragments (GII) (C) of the capsid gene supplemented with reference strains. Waterborne outbreaks are marked DW for drinking water and RW for recreational water. When two genotypes were detected within one outbreak, they are given the suffixes _1 and _2.

FIG. 2.

Phylogenetic dendrograms based on 234-nucleotide fragments of the polymerase gene for GI and GII NoV strains (A) or 291-nucleotide fragments (GI) (B) or 282-nucleotide fragments (GII) (C) of the capsid gene supplemented with reference strains. Waterborne outbreaks are marked DW for drinking water and RW for recreational water. When two genotypes were detected within one outbreak, they are given the suffixes _1 and _2.