Meta-Analysis
doi: 10.1002/14651858.MR000008.pub4.
Methods to increase response to postal and electronic questionnaires
Affiliations
- PMID: 19588449
- PMCID: PMC8941848
- DOI: 10.1002/14651858.MR000008.pub4
Item in Clipboard
Meta-Analysis
Methods to increase response to postal and electronic questionnaires
Cochrane Database Syst Rev.
.
Update in
-
Methods to increase response to postal and electronic questionnaires.Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2023 Nov 30;11(11):MR000008. doi: 10.1002/14651858.MR000008.pub5. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2023. PMID: 38032037 Free PMC article.
Abstract
Background: Postal and electronic questionnaires are widely used for data collection in epidemiological studies but non-response reduces the effective sample size and can introduce bias. Finding ways to increase response to postal and electronic questionnaires would improve the quality of health research.
Objectives: To identify effective strategies to increase response to postal and electronic questionnaires.
Search strategy: We searched 14 electronic databases to February 2008 and manually searched the reference lists of relevant trials and reviews, and all issues of two journals. We contacted the authors of all trials or reviews to ask about unpublished trials. Where necessary, we also contacted authors to confirm methods of allocation used and to clarify results presented. We assessed the eligibility of each trial using pre-defined criteria.
Selection criteria: Randomised controlled trials of methods to increase response to postal or electronic questionnaires.
Data collection and analysis: We extracted data on the trial participants, the intervention, the number randomised to intervention and comparison groups and allocation concealment. For each strategy, we estimated pooled odds ratios (OR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) in a random-effects model. We assessed evidence for selection bias using Egger's weighted regression method and Begg's rank correlation test and funnel plot. We assessed heterogeneity among trial odds ratios using a Chi(2) test and the degree of inconsistency between trial results was quantified using the I(2) statistic.
Main results: PostalWe found 481 eligible trials. The trials evaluated 110 different ways of increasing response to postal questionnaires. We found substantial heterogeneity among trial results in half of the strategies. The odds of response were at least doubled using monetary incentives (odds ratio 1.87; 95% CI 1.73 to 2.04; heterogeneity P < 0.00001, I(2) = 84%), recorded delivery (1.76; 95% CI 1.43 to 2.18; P = 0.0001, I(2) = 71%), a teaser on the envelope - e.g. a comment suggesting to participants that they may benefit if they open it (3.08; 95% CI 1.27 to 7.44) and a more interesting questionnaire topic (2.00; 95% CI 1.32 to 3.04; P = 0.06, I(2) = 80%). The odds of response were substantially higher with pre-notification (1.45; 95% CI 1.29 to 1.63; P < 0.00001, I(2) = 89%), follow-up contact (1.35; 95% CI 1.18 to 1.55; P < 0.00001, I(2) = 76%), unconditional incentives (1.61; 1.36 to 1.89; P < 0.00001, I(2) = 88%), shorter questionnaires (1.64; 95% CI 1.43 to 1.87; P < 0.00001, I(2) = 91%), providing a second copy of the questionnaire at follow up (1.46; 95% CI 1.13 to 1.90; P < 0.00001, I(2) = 82%), mentioning an obligation to respond (1.61; 95% CI 1.16 to 2.22; P = 0.98, I(2) = 0%) and university sponsorship (1.32; 95% CI 1.13 to 1.54; P < 0.00001, I(2) = 83%). The odds of response were also increased with non-monetary incentives (1.15; 95% CI 1.08 to 1.22; P < 0.00001, I(2) = 79%), personalised questionnaires (1.14; 95% CI 1.07 to 1.22; P < 0.00001, I(2) = 63%), use of hand-written addresses (1.25; 95% CI 1.08 to 1.45; P = 0.32, I(2) = 14%), use of stamped return envelopes as opposed to franked return envelopes (1.24; 95% CI 1.14 to 1.35; P < 0.00001, I(2) = 69%), an assurance of confidentiality (1.33; 95% CI 1.24 to 1.42) and first class outward mailing (1.11; 95% CI 1.02 to 1.21; P = 0.78, I(2) = 0%). The odds of response were reduced when the questionnaire included questions of a sensitive nature (0.94; 95% CI 0.88 to 1.00; P = 0.51, I(2) = 0%).ElectronicWe found 32 eligible trials. The trials evaluated 27 different ways of increasing response to electronic questionnaires. We found substantial heterogeneity among trial results in half of the strategies. The odds of response were increased by more than a half using non-monetary incentives (1.72; 95% CI 1.09 to 2.72; heterogeneity P < 0.00001, I(2) = 95%), shorter e-questionnaires (1.73; 1.40 to 2.13; P = 0.08, I(2) = 68%), including a statement that others had responded (1.52; 95% CI 1.36 to 1.70), and a more interesting topic (1.85; 95% CI 1.52 to 2.26). The odds of response increased by a third using a lottery with immediate notification of results (1.37; 95% CI 1.13 to 1.65), an offer of survey results (1.36; 95% CI 1.15 to 1.61), and using a white background (1.31; 95% CI 1.10 to 1.56). The odds of response were also increased with personalised e-questionnaires (1.24; 95% CI 1.17 to 1.32; P = 0.07, I(2) = 41%), using a simple header (1.23; 95% CI 1.03 to 1.48), using textual representation of response categories (1.19; 95% CI 1.05 to 1.36), and giving a deadline (1.18; 95% CI 1.03 to 1.34). The odds of response tripled when a picture was included in an e-mail (3.05; 95% CI 1.84 to 5.06; P = 0.27, I(2) = 19%). The odds of response were reduced when "Survey" was mentioned in the e-mail subject line (0.81; 95% CI 0.67 to 0.97; P = 0.33, I(2) = 0%), and when the e-mail included a male signature (0.55; 95% CI 0.38 to 0.80; P = 0.96, I(2) = 0%).
Authors' conclusions: Health researchers using postal and electronic questionnaires can increase response using the strategies shown to be effective in this systematic review.
Conflict of interest statement
None.
Figures
Comparison 1 Monetary incentive vs. no incentive, Outcome 1 First response.
Comparison 1 Monetary incentive vs. no incentive, Outcome 2 Final response.
Comparison 1 Monetary incentive vs. no incentive, Outcome 3 e ‐ Log.
Comparison 1 Monetary incentive vs. no incentive, Outcome 4 e ‐ Submission.
Comparison 2 Larger vs. smaller monetary incentive, Outcome 1 First response.
Comparison 2 Larger vs. smaller monetary incentive, Outcome 2 Final response.
Comparison 3 Monetary vs. non‐monetary incentive, Outcome 1 First response.
Comparison 3 Monetary vs. non‐monetary incentive, Outcome 2 Final response.
Comparison 3 Monetary vs. non‐monetary incentive, Outcome 3 e ‐ Login.
Comparison 3 Monetary vs. non‐monetary incentive, Outcome 4 e ‐ Submission.
Comparison 4 Non‐monetary incentive vs. no incentive, Outcome 1 First response.
Comparison 4 Non‐monetary incentive vs. no incentive, Outcome 2 Final response.
Comparison 4 Non‐monetary incentive vs. no incentive, Outcome 3 e ‐ Login.
Comparison 4 Non‐monetary incentive vs. no incentive, Outcome 4 e ‐ Submission.
Comparison 5 Larger non‐monetary incentive vs. smaller, Outcome 1 First response.
Comparison 5 Larger non‐monetary incentive vs. smaller, Outcome 2 Final response.
Comparison 5 Larger non‐monetary incentive vs. smaller, Outcome 3 e ‐ Login.
Comparison 5 Larger non‐monetary incentive vs. smaller, Outcome 4 e ‐ Submission.
Comparison 6 Immediate notification of lottery results vs. delayed notification, Outcome 4 e ‐ Submission.
Comparison 7 Higher denominations in monetary lottery incentives vs. lower, Outcome 4 e ‐ Submission.
Comparison 8 Incentive with questionnaire vs. on response, Outcome 1 First response.
Comparison 8 Incentive with questionnaire vs. on response, Outcome 2 Final response.
Comparison 8 Incentive with questionnaire vs. on response, Outcome 3 e ‐ Log.
Comparison 8 Incentive with questionnaire vs. on response, Outcome 4 e ‐ Submission.
Comparison 9 Incentive with first vs. subsequent mailing, Outcome 1 First response.
Comparison 9 Incentive with first vs. subsequent mailing, Outcome 2 Final response.
Comparison 10 Unconditional and conditional incentives vs. conditional incentives, Outcome 4 e ‐ Submission.
Comparison 11 Offer of survey results vs. no offer, Outcome 1 First response.
Comparison 11 Offer of survey results vs. no offer, Outcome 2 Final response.
Comparison 11 Offer of survey results vs. no offer, Outcome 4 e ‐ Submission.
Comparison 12 Shorter vs. longer questionnaire, Outcome 1 First response.
Comparison 12 Shorter vs. longer questionnaire, Outcome 2 Final response.
Comparison 12 Shorter vs. longer questionnaire, Outcome 4 e ‐ Submission.
Comparison 13 Double postcard vs. one page, Outcome 1 First response.
Comparison 13 Double postcard vs. one page, Outcome 2 Final response.
Comparison 14 More vs. less personalised, Outcome 1 First response.
Comparison 14 More vs. less personalised, Outcome 2 Final response.
Comparison 14 More vs. less personalised, Outcome 3 e ‐ Login.
Comparison 14 More vs. less personalised, Outcome 4 e ‐ Submission.
Comparison 15 Hand‐written vs. typed/facsimile/scanned/printed signature on covering letter, Outcome 1 First response.
Comparison 15 Hand‐written vs. typed/facsimile/scanned/printed signature on covering letter, Outcome 2 Final response.
Comparison 16 Hand‐written address vs. computer‐printed
, Outcome 1 First response.
Comparison 16 Hand‐written address vs. computer‐printed
, Outcome 2 Final response.
Comparison 17 Signed vs. unsigned, Outcome 2 Final response.
Comparison 18 Identifying feature on return vs. none, Outcome 1 First response.
Comparison 18 Identifying feature on return vs. none, Outcome 2 Final response.
Comparison 19 Identifying number on return vs. other identifier, Outcome 1 First response.
Comparison 19 Identifying number on return vs. other identifier, Outcome 2 Final response.
Comparison 20 Brown vs. white envelope, Outcome 1 First response.
Comparison 20 Brown vs. white envelope, Outcome 2 Final response.
Comparison 21 Coloured vs. white questionnaire, Outcome 1 First response.
Comparison 21 Coloured vs. white questionnaire, Outcome 2 Final response.
Comparison 22 Coloured vs. standard (black/blue) ink, Outcome 1 First response.
Comparison 22 Coloured vs. standard (black/blue) ink, Outcome 2 Final response.
Comparison 23 Coloured vs. black & white letterhead, Outcome 1 First response.
Comparison 23 Coloured vs. black & white letterhead, Outcome 2 Final response.
Comparison 24 Illustration on cover of q'aire largely in black vs. largely in white, Outcome 2 Final response.
Comparison 25 Folder or booklet vs. stapled pages, Outcome 1 First response.
Comparison 25 Folder or booklet vs. stapled pages, Outcome 2 Final response.
Comparison 26 Large paper size vs. small, Outcome 1 First response.
Comparison 26 Large paper size vs. small, Outcome 2 Final response.
Comparison 27 Dot matrix print vs. letter quality print, Outcome 2 Final response.
Comparison 28 Questionnaire printed on high vs. standard quality paper or thick paper vs. thin, Outcome 2 Final response.
Comparison 29 Single vs. double‐sided questionnaire, Outcome 1 First response.
Comparison 29 Single vs. double‐sided questionnaire, Outcome 2 Final response.
Comparison 30 Large font size vs. small, Outcome 2 Final response.
Comparison 31 Study logo on several items in the mailing package vs. on questionnaire only, Outcome 2 Final response.
Comparison 32 Picture of researcher/images vs. none, Outcome 1 First response.
Comparison 32 Picture of researcher/images vs. none, Outcome 2 Final response.
Comparison 32 Picture of researcher/images vs. none, Outcome 4 e ‐ Submission.
Comparison 33 Attractive vs. less attractive picture, Outcome 4 e ‐ Submission.
Comparison 34 Cartoons included vs. not, Outcome 2 Final response.
Comparison 35 Matrix vs. standard form, Outcome 1 First response.
Comparison 35 Matrix vs. standard form, Outcome 2 Final response.
Comparison 36 Questions ordered by time period vs. other order, Outcome 3 Final response.
Comparison 37 Subject line vs. blank, Outcome 1 e ‐ Login.
Comparison 37 Subject line vs. blank, Outcome 2 e ‐ Submission.
Comparison 38 "Survey" subject line vs. blank, Outcome 1 e ‐ Login.
Comparison 38 "Survey" subject line vs. blank, Outcome 2 e ‐ Submission.
Comparison 39 Text vs. HTML file formats, Outcome 2 e ‐ Submission.
Comparison 40 White background vs. black, Outcome 2 e ‐ Submission.
Comparison 41 Header vs. no header, Outcome 2 e ‐ Submission.
Comparison 42 Simple vs. complex header, Outcome 2 e ‐ Submission.
Comparison 43 Textual presentation of response categories vs. visual presentation, Outcome 4 e ‐ Submission.
Comparison 44 Stamped vs. franked outward envelope, Outcome 1 First response.
Comparison 44 Stamped vs. franked outward envelope, Outcome 2 Final response.
Comparison 45 First vs. second/third class outward mailing, Outcome 1 First response.
Comparison 45 First vs. second/third class outward mailing, Outcome 2 Final response.
Comparison 46 Commemorative/race‐specific vs. ordinary stamp on return envelope, Outcome 1 First response.
Comparison 46 Commemorative/race‐specific vs. ordinary stamp on return envelope, Outcome 2 Final response.
Comparison 47 Certified/special delivery vs. regular outward mailing, Outcome 1 First response.
Comparison 47 Certified/special delivery vs. regular outward mailing, Outcome 2 Final response.
Comparison 48 Stamped vs. business reply/franked return envelope, Outcome 1 First response.
Comparison 48 Stamped vs. business reply/franked return envelope, Outcome 2 Final response.
Comparison 49 Priority stamps vs. first‐class stamps on return envelope, Outcome 2 Final response.
Comparison 50 First vs. second class stamp on return envelope, Outcome 2 Final response.
Comparison 51 Multiple stamps vs. single stamp on return envelope, Outcome 2 Final response.
Comparison 52 Questionnaire sent to work vs. home address, Outcome 1 First response.
Comparison 52 Questionnaire sent to work vs. home address, Outcome 2 Final response.
Comparison 53 Pre‐paid return envelope vs. not pre‐paid, Outcome 1 First response.
Comparison 53 Pre‐paid return envelope vs. not pre‐paid, Outcome 2 Final response.
Comparison 54 Stamped addressed return envelope vs. address label only included, Outcome 2 Final response.
Comparison 55 Q'aire mailed in large vs. standard/small envelope, Outcome 2 Final response.
Comparison 56 Window vs. regular envelope, Outcome 1 First response.
Comparison 56 Window vs. regular envelope, Outcome 2 Final response.
Comparison 57 Postal + optional Internet response vs. only postal response, Outcome 1 First response.
Comparison 57 Postal + optional Internet response vs. only postal response, Outcome 2 Final response.
Comparison 58 Questionnaire mailed on Monday vs. Friday, Outcome 1 First response.
Comparison 58 Questionnaire mailed on Monday vs. Friday, Outcome 2 Final response.
Comparison 59 Questionnaire received on Monday vs. Friday, Outcome 2 Final response.
Comparison 60 Q'aire sent 1‐5 weeks vs. 9‐14 weeks after hospital discharge, Outcome 2 Final response.
Comparison 61 Pre‐contact vs. no pre‐contact, Outcome 1 First response.
Comparison 61 Pre‐contact vs. no pre‐contact, Outcome 2 Final response.
Comparison 62 Pre‐contact by phone vs. mail, Outcome 1 First response.
Comparison 62 Pre‐contact by phone vs. mail, Outcome 2 Final response.
Comparison 63 Follow up vs. no follow up, Outcome 1 First response.
Comparison 63 Follow up vs. no follow up, Outcome 2 Final response.
Comparison 64 Postal follow‐up including vs. excluding q'aire, Outcome 1 First response.
Comparison 64 Postal follow‐up including vs. excluding q'aire, Outcome 2 Final response.
Comparison 65 Follow up by phone vs. mail, Outcome 1 First Response.
Comparison 65 Follow up by phone vs. mail, Outcome 2 Final Response.
Comparison 66 Telephone reminder vs. no reminder, Outcome 1 First response.
Comparison 66 Telephone reminder vs. no reminder, Outcome 2 Final response.
Comparison 67 SMS vs. postcard reminder, Outcome 2 Final response.
Comparison 68 Follow‐up interval < 31 days vs. 31‐60 days, Outcome 1 First response.
Comparison 68 Follow‐up interval < 31 days vs. 31‐60 days, Outcome 2 Final response.
Comparison 69 Sensitive questions vs. no/fewer/less sensitive questions asked, Outcome 1 First response.
Comparison 69 Sensitive questions vs. no/fewer/less sensitive questions asked, Outcome 2 Final response.
Comparison 70 More relevant questions first vs. last, Outcome 1 First response.
Comparison 70 More relevant questions first vs. last, Outcome 2 Final response.
Comparison 71 Most general question first vs. last, Outcome 2 Final response.
Comparison 72 Demographic items first vs. last, Outcome 1 First response.
Comparison 72 Demographic items first vs. last, Outcome 2 Final response.
Comparison 73 Easier questions first vs. last, Outcome 1 First response.
Comparison 73 Easier questions first vs. last, Outcome 2 Final response.
Comparison 74 User friendly vs. standard questionnaire, Outcome 1 First response.
Comparison 74 User friendly vs. standard questionnaire, Outcome 2 Final response.
Comparison 75 More interesting vs. less or high salient topic vs. low, Outcome 1 First response.
Comparison 75 More interesting vs. less or high salient topic vs. low, Outcome 2 Final response.
Comparison 75 More interesting vs. less or high salient topic vs. low, Outcome 4 e ‐ Submission.
Comparison 76 Open‐ended vs. closed questions, Outcome 1 First response.
Comparison 76 Open‐ended vs. closed questions, Outcome 2 Final response.
Comparison 77 Open‐ended items first vs. other items first, Outcome 1 First response.
Comparison 77 Open‐ended items first vs. other items first, Outcome 2 Final response.
Comparison 78 Closed‐ended items first vs. other items first, Outcome 1 First response.
Comparison 78 Closed‐ended items first vs. other items first, Outcome 2 Final response.
Comparison 79 'Don't know' boxes included vs. not, Outcome 2 Final response.
Comparison 80 Circle answer vs. tick box format, Outcome 2 Final response.
Comparison 81 Response options listed in increasing vs. decreasing order, Outcome 2 Final response.
Comparison 82 High vs. medium frequency response alternatives, Outcome 2 Final response.
Comparison 83 5‐step vs. 10‐step response scale, Outcome 2 Final response.
Comparison 84 Check categories or specify numbers vs. check categories only, Outcome 1 First response.
Comparison 84 Check categories or specify numbers vs. check categories only, Outcome 2 Final response.
Comparison 85 Individual item vs. stem & leaf format, Outcome 2 Final response.
Comparison 86 Horizontal vs. vertical orientation of response options, Outcome 2 Final response.
Comparison 87 Conventional vs. randomised response technique, Outcome 1 First response.
Comparison 87 Conventional vs. randomised response technique, Outcome 2 Final response.
Comparison 88 Factual questions only vs. factual and attitudinal questions, Outcome 2 Final response.
Comparison 89 Teaser on envelope vs. none, Outcome 1 First response.
Comparison 89 Teaser on envelope vs. none, Outcome 2 Final response.
Comparison 90 Questionnaire sent with supplement vs. alone, Outcome 2 Final response.
Comparison 91 Extra questionnaire for relatives included vs. not, Outcome 2 Final response.
Comparison 92 Consent form included vs. not, Outcome 1 First response.
Comparison 92 Consent form included vs. not, Outcome 2 Final response.
Comparison 93 Multi‐option vs. standard consent form, Outcome 2 Final response.
Comparison 94 University sponsor/source vs. other, Outcome 1 First response.
Comparison 94 University sponsor/source vs. other, Outcome 2 Final response.
Comparison 94 University sponsor/source vs. other, Outcome 3 e ‐ Login.
Comparison 94 University sponsor/source vs. other, Outcome 4 e ‐ Submission.
Comparison 95 Sent or signed by more vs. less senior/well‐known person, Outcome 1 First response.
Comparison 95 Sent or signed by more vs. less senior/well‐known person, Outcome 2 Final response.
Comparison 95 Sent or signed by more vs. less senior/well‐known person, Outcome 3 e ‐ Login.
Comparison 95 Sent or signed by more vs. less senior/well‐known person, Outcome 4 e ‐ Submission.
Comparison 96 University printed envelope vs. plain, Outcome 1 First response.
Comparison 96 University printed envelope vs. plain, Outcome 2 Final response.
Comparison 97 Pre‐contact by medical researcher vs. non medical researcher, Outcome 2 Final response.
Comparison 98 Q'aire sent by GP vs. by research group, Outcome 1 First response.
Comparison 98 Q'aire sent by GP vs. by research group, Outcome 2 Final response.
Comparison 99 Ethnically unidentifiable/white vs. other name, Outcome 1 First response.
Comparison 99 Ethnically unidentifiable/white vs. other name, Outcome 2 Final response.
Comparison 100 Male vs. female investigator or male vs. female signature, Outcome 1 First response.
Comparison 100 Male vs. female investigator or male vs. female signature, Outcome 2 Final response.
Comparison 100 Male vs. female investigator or male vs. female signature, Outcome 4 e ‐ Submission.
Comparison 101 Assurance of confidentiality vs. none, Outcome 2 Final response.
Comparison 102 Included statement that others had responded vs. no statement, Outcome 1 First response.
Comparison 102 Included statement that others had responded vs. no statement, Outcome 2 Final response.
Comparison 102 Included statement that others had responded vs. no statement, Outcome 3 e ‐ Login.
Comparison 102 Included statement that others had responded vs. no statement, Outcome 4 e ‐ Submission.
Comparison 103 Choice to opt‐out from study vs. none, Outcome 1 First response.
Comparison 103 Choice to opt‐out from study vs. none, Outcome 2 Final response.
Comparison 104 Instructions given vs. not, Outcome 2 Final response.
Comparison 105 Response deadline given vs. no deadline, Outcome 1 First response.
Comparison 105 Response deadline given vs. no deadline, Outcome 2 Final response.
Comparison 105 Response deadline given vs. no deadline, Outcome 3 e ‐ Login.
Comparison 105 Response deadline given vs. no deadline, Outcome 4 e ‐ Submission.
Comparison 106 Mention of obligation to respond vs. none, Outcome 1 First response.
Comparison 106 Mention of obligation to respond vs. none, Outcome 2 Final response.
Comparison 107 Request for telephone number vs. none, Outcome 1 First response.
Comparison 107 Request for telephone number vs. none, Outcome 2 Final response.
Comparison 108 Respond on questionnaire vs. on separate form, Outcome 1 First response.
Comparison 108 Respond on questionnaire vs. on separate form, Outcome 2 Final response.
Comparison 109 Mention of follow‐up contact vs. none, Outcome 1 First response.
Comparison 109 Mention of follow‐up contact vs. none, Outcome 2 Final response.
Comparison 110 Explanation for non‐participation requested vs. not, Outcome 1 First response.
Comparison 110 Explanation for non‐participation requested vs. not, Outcome 2 Final response.
Comparison 111 Time estimate for completion given vs. not, Outcome 1 First response.
Comparison 111 Time estimate for completion given vs. not, Outcome 2 Final response.
Comparison 112 Detailed vs. brief cover letter, Outcome 2 Final response.
Comparison 113 Appeal vs. none, Outcome 2 Final response.
Comparison 113 Appeal vs. none, Outcome 3 e ‐ Login.
Comparison 113 Appeal vs. none, Outcome 4 e ‐ Submission.
Comparison 114 Note requesting not to remove ID code vs. none, Outcome 1 First response.
Comparison 114 Note requesting not to remove ID code vs. none, Outcome 2 Final response.
Comparison 115 Request for participant signature vs. none, Outcome 2 Final response.
Comparison 116 Questionnaire endorsed vs. not endorsed, Outcome 1 First response.
Comparison 116 Questionnaire endorsed vs. not endorsed, Outcome 2 Final response.
Comparison 117 Veiled threat in follow‐up letter vs. none, Outcome 1 First response.
Comparison 117 Veiled threat in follow‐up letter vs. none, Outcome 2 Final response.
Comparison 118 Appeal stresses benefit to sponsor vs. other, Outcome 1 First response.
Comparison 118 Appeal stresses benefit to sponsor vs. other, Outcome 2 Final response.
Comparison 119 Appeal stresses benefit to respondent vs. other, Outcome 1 First response.
Comparison 119 Appeal stresses benefit to respondent vs. other, Outcome 2 Final response.
Comparison 120 Appeal stresses benefit to society vs. other, Outcome 1 First response.
Comparison 120 Appeal stresses benefit to society vs. other, Outcome 2 Final response.
Comparison 121 Anonymous vs. not anonymous, Outcome 2 Final response.
Update of
-
Methods to increase response rates to postal questionnaires.Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2007 Apr 18;(2):MR000008. doi: 10.1002/14651858.MR000008.pub3. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2007. Update in: Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2009 Jul 08;(3):MR000008. doi: 10.1002/14651858.MR000008.pub4. PMID: 17443629 Updated.
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Biner 1994 {published data only}
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Dillman 1993 {published data only}
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Dommeyer 1980a {unpublished data only}
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Dommeyer 1989 {published data only}
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Dommeyer 1991 {published data only}
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Futrell 1978 {published data only}
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Green 1986 {published data only}
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Green 1989 {published data only}
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Gueguen 2003b {published data only}
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Gullahorn 1959 {published data only}
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Gullahorn 1963 {published data only}
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Hansen RA 1980 {published data only}
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Roszkowski 1990c {published data only}
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Roszkowski 1990d {published data only}
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Roszkowski 1990e {published data only}
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Roszkowski 1990f {published data only}
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Waltemyer 2005 {published data only}
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- Waltemyer S, Sagas M, Cunningham GB, Jordan JS, Turner BA. The effects of personalization and colored paper on mailed questionnaire response rates in a coaching sample. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport 2005;76(1):A130.
Ward 1996 {published data only}
-
- Ward J, Boyle C, Long D, Ovadia C. Patient surveys in general practice. Australian Family Physician 1996;25(1):S19‐S20. - PubMed
Ward 1998 {published data only}
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- Ward J, Bruce T, Holt P, D'Este K, Sladden M. Labour‐saving strategies to maintain survey response rates: a randomised trial. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health 1998;22(3 Suppl):394‐6. - PubMed
Warriner 1996 {published and unpublished data}
-
- Warriner K, Goyder J, Gjertsen H, Hohner P, McSpurren K. Charities, no; lotteries, no; cash, yes. Public Opinion Quarterly 1996;60:542‐62.
Weilbacher 1952 {published data only}
-
- Weilbacher WM, Walsh HR. Mail questionnaires and the personalized letter of transmittal. Marketing Notes 1952;16:331‐6.
Weir 1999 {unpublished data only}
-
- Weir N. Methods of following up stroke patients. Neurosciences Trials Unit, University of Edinburgh.
Wells 1984 {unpublished data only}
-
- Wells DV. The representativeness of mail questionnaires as a function or sponsorship, return postage, and time of response. Doctoral Dissertation 1984.
Weltzien 1986 {published data only}
-
- Weltzien RT, McIntyre TJ, Ernst JA, Walsh JA, Parker JK. Crossvalidation of some psychometric properties of the CSQ and its differential return rate as a function of token financial incentives. Community Mental Health Journal 1986;22(1):49‐55. - PubMed
Wensing 1999a {published data only}
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Wensing 1999b {published data only}
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Wensing 2005 {published data only}
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Whitcomb 2004 {published data only}
-
- Whitcomb ME, Porter SR. E‐mail contacts: a test of complex graphical designs in survey research. Social Science Computer Review 2004;22:370‐6.
White 1997 {published data only}
-
- White MB, Chambers KM. Type of cover letter and questionnaire color: do they influence the response rate in survey research with marriage and family therapists?. Family Therapy 1997;24(1):19‐24.
White 2005a {published data only}
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White 2005b {published data only}
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Whiteman 2003 {published data only}
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Whitmore 1976 {published data only}
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- Whitmore WJ. Mail survey premiums and response bias. Journal of Marketing Research 1976;13:46‐50.
Willits 1995 {published data only}
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- Willits FK, Ke B. Part‐whole question order effects. Public Opinion Quarterly 1995;59:392‐403.
Windsor 1992 {published data only}
Wiseman 1972 {published data only}
-
- Wiseman F. Methodological bias in public opinion surveys. Public Opinion Quarterly 1972;36:105‐8.
Wiseman 1973 {published data only}
-
- Wiseman F. Factor interaction effects in mail survey response rates. Journal of Marketing Research 1973;10:330‐3.
Woodward 1985 {published data only}
-
- Woodward A, Douglas B, Miles H. Chance of a free dinner increases response to mail questionnaire. International Journal of Epidemiology 1985;14:641‐2. - PubMed
Worthen 1985a {published data only}
-
- Worthen BR, Valcarce RW. Relative effectiveness of personalized and form covering letters in initial and follow‐up mail surveys. Psychology Reports 1985;57:735‐44.
Worthen 1985b {published data only}
-
- Worthen BR, Valcarce RW. Relative effectiveness of personalized and form covering letters in initial and follow‐up mail surveys. Psychology Reports 1985;57:735‐44.
Worthen 1985c {published data only}
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- Worthen BR, Valcarce RW. Relative effectiveness of personalized and form covering letters in initial and follow‐up mail surveys. Psychology Reports 1985;57:735‐44.
Wotruba 1966 {published data only}
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- Wotruba TR. Monetary inducements and mail questionnaire response. Journal of Marketing Research 1966;3:398‐400.
Wright 1984 {unpublished data only}
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- Wright SJ. Mail survey response rates: a test of four techniques designed to increase response rates and a discussion of the associated cost considerations. Student Research Report, Department of Marketing, Massey University 1984.
Wright 1995 {published data only}
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- Wright M. The effect of pre‐notification on mail survey response rates: an experimental result. Marketing Bulletin 1995;6:59‐64.
Wunder 1988 {published data only}
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- Wunder GC, Wynn GW. The effects of address personalisation on mailed questionnaires response rate, time and quality. Journal of the Market Research Society 1988;30(1):95‐101.
Wynn 1985 {published data only}
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- Wynn GW, McDaniel SW. The effect of alternative foot‐in‐the‐door manipulations on mailed questionnaire response rate and quality. Journal of the Market Research Society 1985;27(1):15‐26.
Zusman 1987 {published data only}
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- Zusman BJ, Duby P. An evaluation of the use of monetary incentives in postsecondary survey research. Journal of Research and Development in Education 1987;20(4):73‐8.
References to studies excluded from this review
Allen 1980 {published data only}
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- Allen CT. More on self‐perception theory’s foot technique in the pre‐call/mail survey setting. Journal of Marketing Research 1980;17:498‐502.
Anderson 1975 {published data only}
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- Anderson JF. Effects of response rates of formal and informal questionnaire follow‐up techniques. Journal of Applied Psychology 1975;60(2):255‐7.
Angus 2003 {published data only}
Armstrong 1975 {published data only}
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- Armstrong JS. Monetary incentives in mail surveys. Public Opinion Quarterly 1975;39:111‐6.
Asch 1994 {published data only}
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Ash 1952 {published data only}
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Baron 2001 {published data only}
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Bevis 1948 {published data only}
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- Bevis JC. Economical incentive used for mail questionnaire. Public Opinion Quarterly 1948;12:492‐3.
Biggar 1992 {published data only}
Blumberg 1974 {published data only}
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Blumenfeld 1973 {published data only}
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- Blumenfeld WS. Effect of appearance of correspondence on response rate to a mail questionnaire survey. Psychological Reports 1973;32:178.
Brechner 1976 {published data only}
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- Brechner K, Shippee G, Obitz FW. Compliance techniques to increase mailed questionnaire return rates from alcoholics. Journal of Studies on Alcohol 1976;37(7):995‐6. - PubMed
Brennan 1958 {published data only}
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- Brennan RD. Trading stamps as an incentive in mail surveys. Journal of Marketing 1958:306‐7.
Cartwright 1968 {published data only}
Cartwright 1989 {published data only}
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- Cartwright A, Windsor J. Some further experiments with factors that might affect the response to postal questionnaires. Survey of Methodology Bulletin 1989;25:11‐5.
Champion 1969 {published data only}
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- Champion DJ, Sear AM. Questionnaire response rate: a methodological analysis. Social Forces 1969;47(3):335‐9.
Childs 2005 {published data only}
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- Childs LA, The Submacular Surgery Trials Research Group. Effect of order of administration of health‐related quality of life interview instruments on responses. Quality of Life Research 2005;14:493–500. - PubMed
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Dillman 1972 {published data only}
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- Dillman DA. Increasing mail questionnaire response in large samples of the general public. Public Opinion Quarterly 1972;36:254‐7.
Dunlap 1950 {published data only}
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Eisinger 1974 {published data only}
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- Eisinger RA, Janicki WP, Stevenson RL, Thompson WL. Increasing returns in international mail surveys. Public Opinion Quarterly 1974;38:126‐30.
Elinson 1950 {published data only}
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- Elinson J, Haines VT. Role of anonymity in attitude surveys. American Psychologist 1950;5:315.
Everett 1997 {published data only}
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Fang 2006 {published data only}
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- Fang J, Shao P. Does material incentive really improve the response rate in web‐based survey? A classification model of the potential respondents. International Conference on Management Science & Engineering (13th) 2006;1‐3:74‐7.
Ferriss 1951 {published data only}
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- Ferriss AL. A note on stimulating response to questionnaires. American Sociological Review 1951;16:247‐9.
Furse 1981 {published data only}
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- Furse DH, Stewart DW, Rados DL. Effects of foot‐in‐the‐door, cash incentives, and follow‐ups on survey response. Journal of Marketing Research 1981;18:473‐8.
Gerace 1995 {published data only}
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- Gerace TA, George VA, Arango IG. Response rates to six recruitment mailing formats and two messages about a nutrition program for women 50‐79 years old. Controlled Clinical Trials 1995;16:422‐31. - PubMed
Gillespie 1975 {published data only}
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- Gillespie DF, Perry RW. Survey return rates and questionnaire appearance. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Sociology 1975;11(3):71‐2.
Hansen 2004 {published data only}
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- Hansen J, Alessandril PT, Croft ML, Burton PR, Klerk NH. The Western Australian register of childhood multiples: effects of questionnaire design and follow‐up protocol on response rates and representativeness. Twin Research 2004;7(2):149‐61. - PubMed
Hare 1998 {published data only}
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- Hare S, Price JH, Flynn MG, King KA. Increasing return rates of a mail survey to exercise professionals using a modest monetary incentive. Perceptual and Motor Skills 1998;86:217‐8. - PubMed
Harlow 1993 {published data only}
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- Harlow BL. Telephone answering machines: the influence of leaving messages on telephone interviewing response rates. Epidemiology 1993;4(4):380‐3. - PubMed
Haugejorden 1987 {published and unpublished data}
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- Haugejorden O, Nielsen WA. Experimental study of two methods of data collection by questionnaire. Community Dentistry & Oral Epidemiology 1987;15:205‐8. - PubMed
Hawes 1987 {published data only}
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- Hawes JM, Crittenden VL, Crittenden WF. The effects of personalisation, source, and offer on mail survey response rate and speed. Akron Business and Economic Review 1987;18:54‐63.
Heads 1966 {published data only}
-
- Heads J, Thrift HJ. Notes on a study in postal response rates. Commentary 1966;8(4):257‐62.
Heje 2006 {published data only}
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- Heje NH, Vedsted P, Olesen F. A cluster‐randomized trial of the significance of a reminder procedure in a patient evaluation survey in general practice. International Journal for Quality in Health Care 2006;18(3):232–7. - PubMed
Helgeson 2002 {published data only}
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- Helgeson JG, Voss KE, Terpening WD. Determinants of mail‐survey response: survey design factors and respondent factors. Psychology & Marketing 2002;19(3):303‐28.
Hing 2005 {published data only}
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- Hing E, Schappert SM, Burt CW, Shimizu IM. Effects of form length and item format on response patterns and estimates of physician office and hospital outpatient department visits. Vital Health Statistics 2005;2(139):1‐32. - PubMed
Hinrichs 1975 {published data only}
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- Hinrichs JR. Factors related to survey response rates: effects of sampling, follow up letters, and commitment to participation on mail attitude survey response. Journal of Applied Psychology 1975;60(2):249‐51.
Hughes 1989 {published data only}
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- Hughes JR. Free reprints to increase the return of follow‐up questionnaires. Controlled Clinical Trials 1989;10:352.
Ives 1990 {published data only}
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- Ives D, Traven N, Kuller L. Comparison of recruitment strategies for health promotion and disease prevalence in the elderly. American Journal of Epidemiology 1990;132:790.
Jiang 2005 {published data only}
-
- Jiang P, Rosenbloom B. Customer intention to return online: price perception, attribute‐level performance, and satisfaction unfolding over time. European Journal of Marketing 2005;39(1‐2):150‐74.
Kerin 1974 {published data only}
-
- Kerin RA. Personalization strategies, response rate and response quality in a mail survey. Social Science Quarterly 1974;55:175‐81.
Kerin 1977 {published data only}
-
- Kerin RA, Peterson RA. Personalization, respondent anonymity, and response distortion in mail surveys. Journal of Applied Psychology 1977;62(1):86‐9.
Kerin 1983 {published data only}
-
- Kerin RA. Effects of preliminary contacts on volunteering in mail surveys: another view. Perceptual and Motor Skills 1983;57:1282.
Kimball 1961 {published data only}
-
- Kimball AE. Increasing the rate of return in mail surveys. Journal of Marketing 1961;25:63‐5.
Larsson 1970 {published data only}
-
- Larsson I. Increasing the rate of returns in mail surveys. A methodological study. Didakometry & Sociometry 1970;2:43‐70.
Longworth 1953 {published data only}
-
- Longworth DS. Use of a mail questionnaire. American Sociologist 1953;18:310‐3.
Lopez‐ Cano 2007 {published data only}
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- Lopez‐Cano M, Vilallonga R, Sanchez JL, Hermosilla E, Armengol M. Short postal questionnaire and selective clinical examination combined with repeat mailing and telephone reminders as a method of follow‐up in hernia surgery. Her nia 2007;11:397‐402. - PubMed
Lund 1988 {published data only}
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- Lund DB, Malhotra NK, Smith AE. Field validation study of conjoint analysis using selected mail survey response rate facilitators. Journal of Business Research 1988;16:351‐68.
Marks 1981 {published data only}
-
- Mark RB. A factorial experiment in stimulating response to mail surveys. American Marketing Association Educators Conference. 1981; Vol. 47:398‐400.
May 1960 {published data only}
-
- May RC. What approach gets the best return in mail surveys?. Industrial Marketing 1960;45:50‐1.
McDermott 2003 {published data only}
-
- McDermott MM, Greenland P, Hahn EA, Brogan D, Cella D, Ockene J, P, et al. The effects of continuing medical education credits on physician response rates to a mailed questionnaire . Health Marketing Quarterly 2003;20(4):27‐42. - PubMed
Mehta 1995 {published data only}
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- Mehta R, Sivadas E. Comparing response rates and response content in mail versus electronic mail surveys. Journal of the Market Research Society 1995;37:429‐39.
Nitecki 1975 {published data only}
-
- Nitecki DA. Effects of sponsorship and nonmonetary incentive on response rate. Journalism Quarterly 1975;55:581‐3.
Oden 1999 {published data only}
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- Oden L, Price JH. Effects of a small monetary incentive and follow‐up mailings on return rates of a survey to nurse practitioners. Psychological Reports 1999;85:1154‐6. - PubMed
Perneger 2003 {published data only}
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Peytremann‐Bridevaux 2006a {published data only}
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- Peytremann‐Bridevaux I, Scherer F, Peer L, Cathieni F, Bonsack C, Cléopas A, et al. Satisfaction of patients hospitalised in psychiatric hospitals: a randomised comparison of two psychiatric‐specific and one generic satisfaction questionnaires. BMC Health Services Research 2006;6(108):1‐9. - PMC - PubMed
Porter 2004 {published data only}
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- Porter SR, Whitcomb ME. Understanding the effect of prizes on response rates. New Directions for Institutional Research 2004;121:51‐62.
Pottick 1991 {published data only}
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- Pottick KJ, Lerman P. Maximising survey response rates for hard‐to‐reach inner‐city populations. Social Science Quarterly 1991;721:172‐80.
Robin 1973 {published data only}
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- Robin DP, Nash HW, Jones SR. An analysis of monetary incentives in mail questionnaire studies. J Business Comm 1973;11:38‐42.
Robin 1976 {published data only}
-
- Robin DP, Walters CG. The effect on return rate of messages explaining monetary incentives in mail questionnaire studies. Journal of the Business Community 1976;13(3):49‐54.
Roeher 1963 {published data only}
-
- Roeher GA. Effective techniques in increasing response to mailed questionnaires. Public Opinion Quarterly 1963;27:299‐302.
Rudd 1980 {published data only}
-
- Rudd NM, Maxwell NL. Mail survey response rates: effects of questionnaire topic and length and recipients community. Psychological Reports 1980;46:435‐40.
Salomone 1978 {published data only}
-
- Salomone PR, Miller GC. Increasing the response rates of rehabilitation counselors to mailed questionnaires. Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin 1978;22:138‐41.
Senf 1987 {published and unpublished data}
-
- Senf JH. The option to refuse: a tool in understanding nonresponse in mailed surveys. Evaluation Review 1987;11:775‐81.
Shackleton 1982 {published data only}
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- Shackleton VJ, Wild JM. Effect of incentives and personal contact on response rate to a mailed questionnaire. Psychological Reports 1982;50:365‐6.
Shermis 1982 {published data only}
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- Shermis MD. Issues in survey data quality: four field experiments. Doctoral Dissertation 1982.
Sheth 1975 {published data only}
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- Sheth JN, Roscoe AM. Impact of questionnaire length, follow‐up methods, and geographical location on response rate to a mail survey. Journal of Applied Psychology 1975;60(2):252‐4.
Sirken 1960 {published and unpublished data}
Smith 1972 {published data only}
-
- Smith EM, Hewett W. The value of a preliminary letter in postal survey response. Journal of the Marketing Research Society 1972;14(3):145‐51.
Smith 1977 {published data only}
-
- Smith K. Signing off in the right colour can boost mail survey response. Industrial Marketing 1977;62:61‐2.
Smith 1987 {published data only}
-
- Smith K, Bers T. Improving alumni survey response rates: a n experiment and cost‐benefit analysis. Research in Higher Education 1987;27(3):218‐25.
Snyder 1984 {published data only}
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- Snyder M, Lapovsky D. Enhancing survey response from initial non‐consenters. Journal of Advertising Research 1984;24:17‐20.
Suhre 1989 {published and unpublished data}
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- Surhe C. Schools over the gangway: an experiment on response impoving procedures. Tijdschrift voor Onderwijsresearch 1989;14:172‐80.
Sullivan 1995 {published data only}
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- Sullivan LM, Dukes KA, Harris L, Dittus RS, Greenfield S, Kaplan SH. A comparison of various methods of collecting self‐reported health outcomes data among low‐income and minority patients. Medical Care 1995;33(4):AS183‐94. - PubMed
Sutherland 1996 {published data only}
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- Sutherland HJ, Beaton M, Mazer R, Kriukov V, Boyd NF. A randomized trial of the total design method for the postal follow‐up of women in a cancer prevention trial. European Journal of Cancer Prevention 1996;5:165‐8. - PubMed
Tan 1997 {published data only}
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- Tan RT, Burke FJT. Response rates to questionnaires mailed to dentists. A review of 77 publications. International Dental Journal 1997;47:349‐54.
Trice 1985 {published data only}
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- Trice AD. Maximizing participation in surveys: hotel ratings VII. Journal of Social Behaviour and Personality 1985;1(1):137‐41.
Walker 1977 {published data only}
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- Walker BJ, Burdick RK. Advance correspondence and error in mail surveys. Journal of Marketing Research 1977;14:379‐82.
Ward 1994 {published data only}
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- Ward J, Wain G. Increasing response rates of gynaecologists to a survey: a randomised trial of telephone prompts. Australian Journal of Public Health 1994;18(3):332‐4. - PubMed
Watson 1965 {published data only}
-
- Watson JJ. Improving the response rate in mail research. Journal of Advertising Research 1965;5:48‐50.
Weiss 1985 {published data only}
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- Weiss LI, Friedman D, Shoemaker CL. Prepaid incentives yield higher response rates to mail surveys. Marketing News 1985;19:30‐1.
Weissenburger 1987 {published data only}
-
- Weissenburger FE. Effects of prior information on teacher ratings of students with behaviour problems. Doctoral Dissertation 1987.
Wildman 1977 {published data only}
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- Wildman RC. Effects of anonymity and social setting on survey responses. Public Opinion Quarterly 1977;41:74‐9.
Zagumny 1996 {published data only}
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- Zagumny MJ, Ramsey R, Upchurch MP. Is anonymity important in AIDS survey research?. Psychological Reports 1996;78:270. - PubMed
Zwisler 2004 {published data only}
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- Zwisler LJET, Jarbol LDE, Lous J. Sporgeskemaundersogelser ‐ hvordan opnar jeg en hoj besvarelsesprocent?. Ugeskr Laeger 2004;166(7):575‐8. - PubMed
References to studies awaiting assessment
Alexander 2008 {published data only}
Balabanis 2007 {published data only}
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- Balabanis G, Mitchell VW, Heinonen‐Mavrovouniotis S. SMS‐based surveys: Strategies to improve participation. International Journal of Advertising 2007;26(3):369‐85.
Clarke 2007 {published data only}
Dommeyer 2008 {published data only}
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- Dommeyer CJ. The effects of the researcher's physical attractiveness and gender on mail survey response. Psychology & Marketing 2008;25(1):47‐70.
Epperson 1997 {published data only}
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- Epperson WV, Peck RC. Questionnaire response bias as a function of respondent anonymity. Accident Analysis & Prevention 1997;9:249‐56.
Harris 2008 {published data only}
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- Harris IA, Khoo OK, Young JM, Solomon MJ, Rae H. Lottery incentives did not improve response rate to a mailed survey: a randomized controlled trial. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology 2008;61(6):609‐10. - PubMed
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Hopkins 1983 {published data only}
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Keating 2008 {published data only}
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- Keating NL, Zaslavsky AM, Goldstein J, West DW, Ayanian JZ. Randomized trial of $20 versus $50 incentives to increase physician survey response rates. Medical Care 2008;46(8):878‐81. - PubMed
Maynard 1996 {published data only}
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- Maynard ML. Effectiveness of 'begging' as a persuasive tactic for improving response rate on a client / agency mail survey. Psychological Reports 1996;78:204‐6.
McCrohan 1981 {published data only}
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- McCrohan KF, Lowe LS. A cost/benefit approach to postage used on mail questionnaires. Journal of Marketing 1981;45:130‐3.
Newton 1998 {published data only}
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O'Keefe 1987 {published data only}
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Porter 2007 {published data only}
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Price 2004a {published data only}
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Price 2004b {published data only}
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Strickland 1980 {published data only}
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