[The mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathway in papillary thyroid cancer. From the molecular bases to clinical practice]

Abstract

In recent years, significant progress has been made in elucidating the genetic bases promoting tumorigenesis in various human neoplasms. Constitutive activation of the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathway is a major event in the carcinogenesis of papillary thyroid carcinoma (PTC), the most prevalent endocrine malignancy. Affected elements include RET/PTC rearrangements and point mutations of the Ras and BRAF genes. Mutations in these genes are found in over 70% of PTC. Chromosomal RET rearrangements, called RET/PTC, result in constitutive ligand-independent activation of RET kinase, which was the first genetic anomaly detected in PTC and is found in 5-70% of tumoral samples. Although less frequent, the activation of other tyrosine kinase receptors, such as NTRK1, c-Met or EGFR, has also been reported in PTC. The BRAF mutation represents the most common genetic alteration found in PTC. More than 90% of BRAF mutations lead to a change of a valine to a glutamic acid at position 600 (V600E). Finally, Ras is the least affected molecule in the pathway. A relationship between clinical behavior and these genetic alterations has been proposed. Thus, the BRAF mutation is associated with a more aggressive PTC phenotype and is correlated with poorer outcomes. However, no clear association has been found between RET/PTC and clinical features. The discovery of these alterations opens the way to new therapeutic strategies, especially to treat those patients in whom conventional therapy is not effective. Several new drugs are being tested, such as small molecule tyrosine kinase inhibitors. Some of these recently developed agents have begun to be used with promising results.