Skip to main page content
U.S. flag

An official website of the United States government

Dot gov

The .gov means it’s official.
Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

Https

The site is secure.
The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

Access keys NCBI Homepage MyNCBI Homepage Main Content Main Navigation
. 2009 Sep 4:6:4.
doi: 10.1186/1742-5573-6-4.

Identifiability, exchangeability and confounding revisited

Affiliations

Identifiability, exchangeability and confounding revisited

Sander Greenland et al. Epidemiol Perspect Innov. .

Abstract

In 1986 the International Journal of Epidemiology published "Identifiability, Exchangeability and Epidemiological Confounding". We review the article from the perspective of a quarter century after it was first drafted and relate it to subsequent developments on confounding, ignorability, and collapsibility.

PubMed Disclaimer

References

    1. Greenland S, Robins JM. Identifiability, exchangeability, and epidemiological confounding. Int J Epidemiol. 1986;15:413–419. doi: 10.1093/ije/15.3.413. - DOI - PubMed
    1. Greenland S, Robins JM, Pearl J. Confounding and collapsibility in causal inference. Statistical Science. 1999;14:29–46. doi: 10.1214/ss/1009211805. - DOI
    1. Maldonado G, Greenland S. Estimating causal effects. Int J Epidemiol. 2002;31:422–429. doi: 10.1093/ije/31.2.422. - DOI - PubMed
    1. Greenland S, Morgenstern H. Confounding in health research. Annu Rev Public Health. 2001;22:189–212. doi: 10.1146/annurev.publhealth.22.1.189. - DOI - PubMed
    1. Vandenbroucke JP. The history of confounding. In: Morabia A, editor. History of Epidemiological Methods and Concepts. Basel, Switzerland: Birkhaser Verlag; 2004. pp. 313–326.