Nuclear receptors of the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) family in gestational diabetes: from animal models to clinical trials

Abstract

Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) is defined as impaired glucose tolerance and affects 2%-8% of all pregnancies. Among other complications, GDM can lead to the development of type 2 diabetes mellitus (DM 2) in both mother and child. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) are major regulators of glucose and lipid metabolism. Furthermore, PPARs are mediators of inflammation and angiogenesis and are involved in the maternal adaptational dynamics during pregnancy to serve the requirements of the growing fetus. PPARs were originally named for their ability to induce hepatic peroxisome proliferation in mice in response to xenobiotic stimuli. The expression of three PPAR isoforms, alpha, beta/delta, and gamma, have been described. Each of them is encoded by different genes; however, they share 60%-80% homology in their ligand-binding and DNA-binding domains. PPARs are involved in trophoblast differentiation, invasion, metabolism, and parturition and are expressed in invasive extravillous trophoblast and villous trophoblast cells. Nuclear receptors, to which PPARs belong, are promising targets for disease-specific treatment strategies because they act as transcription factors controlling cellular processes at the level of gene expression and may produce selective alterations in downstream gene expression. To date, PPAR agonists are therapeutically used in patients with DM 2 and in patients with reproductive disorders such as polycystic ovary syndrome. Because of safety concerns and limited data, PPAR agonists are not yet included in GDM-related treatment strategies. Our objective herein is to review newly emerging generations of selective PPAR modulators and panagonists, which may have potent therapeutic implications in the context of GDM.