Facial reconstruction--anatomical art or artistic anatomy?

Abstract

Facial reconstruction is employed in the context of forensic investigation and for creating three-dimensional portraits of people from the past, from ancient Egyptian mummies and bog bodies to digital animations of J. S. Bach. This paper considers a facial reconstruction method (commonly known as the Manchester method) associated with the depiction and identification of the deceased from skeletal remains. Issues of artistic licence and scientific rigour, in relation to soft tissue reconstruction, anatomical variation and skeletal assessment, are discussed. The need for artistic interpretation is greatest where only skeletal material is available, particularly for the morphology of the ears and mouth, and with the skin for an ageing adult. The greatest accuracy is possible when information is available from preserved soft tissue, from a portrait, or from a pathological condition or healed injury.

Fig. 1

Facial reconstruction methods: (A) two-dimensional manual, (B) three-dimensional manual, (C) three-dimensional computerized.

Fig. 2

Face pool assessments of facial reconstruction accuracy. Top row: reconstruction of a white male skull (1) and a face pool (A–D). Bottom row: reconstruction of a white female skull (2) and a face pool (A–D). Graphs show the results of face pool assessment for 1 and 2 with target faces (*) recording correct recognition rates of > 70% (where the level by chance is 20%) (Wilkinson et al. 2006).

Fig. 3

Morphometric assessment of facial reconstruction accuracy. The target white male (Aa), the facial reconstruction (Ab) and the contour map (Ac) showing the differences between the surfaces of the two faces in mm. The target white female (Ba), the facial reconstruction (Bb) and the contour map (Bc) showing the differences between the surfaces of the two faces in mm. The blue areas show the least error and the red/orange areas the most error for each reconstruction (Wilkinson et al. 2006).

Fig. 5

Three skulls with the addition of the muscle structure in modeling clay. Where the same muscles, with the same origins and insertions, are modeled onto three different skulls, clear differences can be observed in facial shape and proportions.

Fig. 4

Muscle attachment markings for temporalis (A), masseter (B) and zygomatic (C) muscles. ZMi, zygomaticus minor; ZMa, zygomaticus major.

Fig. 6

Anatomical reconstruction of the eye. Image courtesy of Caroline Needham, University of Dundee.

Fig. 7

Anatomical sculpture of the nose (Rynn, 2006). Row A indicates the skeletal measurements (x,y,z) that provide soft tissue measurements 1–6. Row B demonstrates how the shape of the aperture in profile reflects the profile of the nose, and how the anterior nasal spine points to the nasal tip. Row C shows a bifurcated ANS and related bifid nose. Row D indicates how the undulating lateral borders of the nasal aperture are related to nasal shape.

Fig. 8

Composite image showing the skin layer placement in relation to the sculpted musculature and tissue depth pegs for facial reconstruction.

Fig. 9

Facial reconstruction of an Egyptian mummy (A) and depicting trauma (B). 12th Dynasty Ancient Egyptian Priest (A) – the 3D replica of the soft tissues of an Egyptian mummy (left) produced by stereolithography from the CT scan data and the resulting facial reconstruction (right) – courtesy of the National Museum of Scotland. The facial reconstruction of a soldier from the 1996 Towton Battle collection (B) at the University of Bradford showing a healed sword wound to his lower jaw (left). The healed skeletal trauma can be seen on the right – courtesy of the University of Bradford.

Fig. 10

The facial reconstruction of Johann Sebastian Bach. The computerized facial reconstruction (A) utilized a 3D model of the skull from laser scan data. Texture was added to the resulting face (B) using the Haussmann 1746 portrait (D) as reference material regarding the degree of fatness, eye condition, skin colour, eye colour, hair colour and skin textures (C). Courtesy of the Bachhaus, Eisenach, and Dr Caroline Wilkinson & Janice Aitken, University of Dundee.