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Meta-Analysis
. 2010 Jul 7;2010(7):CD000336.
doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD000336.pub2.

Effect of outpatient pharmacists' non-dispensing roles on patient outcomes and prescribing patterns

Nancy Nkansah  1 , Olga Mostovetsky, Christine Yu, Tami Chheng, Johnny Beney, Christine M Bond, Lisa Bero
Affiliations
Meta-Analysis

Effect of outpatient pharmacists' non-dispensing roles on patient outcomes and prescribing patterns

Nancy Nkansah et al. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. .

Abstract

Background: The roles of pharmacists in patient care have expanded from the traditional tasks of dispensing medications and providing basic medication counseling to working with other health professionals and the public. Multiple reviews have evaluated the impact of pharmacist-provided patient care on health-related outcomes. Prior reviews have primarily focused on in-patient settings. This systematic review focuses on services provided by outpatient pharmacists in community or ambulatory care settings. This is an update of the Cochrane review published in 2000.

Objectives: To examine the effect of outpatient pharmacists' non-dispensing roles on patient and health professional outcomes.

Search strategy: This review has been split into two phases. For Phase I, we searched the Cochrane Effective Practice and Organisation of Care (EPOC) Group Specialised Register (January 1966 through March 2007). For Phase II, we searched MEDLINE/EMBASE (January 1966 through March 2008). The Phase I results are reported in this review; Phase II will be summarized in the next update.

Selection criteria: Randomized controlled trials comparing 1. Pharmacist services targeted at patients versus services delivered by other health professionals; 2. Pharmacist services targeted at patients versus the delivery of no comparable service; 3. Pharmacist services targeted at health professionals versus services delivered by other health professionals; 4. Pharmacist services targeted at health professionals versus the delivery of no comparable service.

Data collection and analysis: Two authors independently reviewed studies for inclusion, extracted data, and assessed risk of bias of included studies.

Main results: Forty-three studies were included; 36 studies were pharmacist interventions targeting patients and seven studies were pharmacist interventions targeting health professionals. For comparison 1, the only included study showed a significant improvement in systolic blood pressure for patients receiving medication management from a pharmacist compared to usual care from a physician. For comparison 2, in the five studies evaluating process of care outcomes, pharmacist services reduced the incidence of therapeutic duplication and decreased the total number of medications prescribed. Twenty-nine of 36 studies reported clinical and humanistic outcomes. Pharmacist interventions resulted in improvement in most clinical outcomes, although these improvements were not always statistically significant. Eight studies reported patient quality of life outcomes; three studies showed improvement in at least three subdomains. For comparison 3, no studies were identified meeting the inclusion criteria. For comparison 4, two of seven studies demonstrated a clear statistically significant improvement in prescribing patterns.

Authors' conclusions: Only one included study compared pharmacist services with other health professional services, hence we are unable to draw conclusions regarding comparisons 1 and 3. Most included studies supported the role of pharmacists in medication/therapeutic management, patient counseling, and providing health professional education with the goal of improving patient process of care and clinical outcomes, and of educational outreach visits on physician prescribing patterns. There was great heterogeneity in the types of outcomes measured across all studies. Therefore a standardized approach to measure and report clinical, humanistic, and process outcomes for future randomized controlled studies evaluating the impact of outpatient pharmacists is needed. Heterogeneity in study comparison groups, outcomes, and measures makes it challenging to make generalised statements regarding the impact of pharmacists in specific settings, disease states, and patient populations.

PubMed Disclaimer

Conflict of interest statement

Christine Bond is involved in a study that could be eligible for inclusion in a future update to this review.

Figures

1
1
Risk of bias graph: review authors' judgements about each risk of bias item presented as percentages across all included studies.
2
2
Risk of bias summary: review authors' judgements about each risk of bias item for each included study.
2.2
2.2. Analysis
Comparison 2 Pharmacist services targeted at patients versus the delivery of no comparable service, Outcome 2 Systolic Blood Pressure (mmHg).
2.3
2.3. Analysis
Comparison 2 Pharmacist services targeted at patients versus the delivery of no comparable service, Outcome 3 Diastolic Blood Pressure (mmHg).
2.4
2.4. Analysis
Comparison 2 Pharmacist services targeted at patients versus the delivery of no comparable service, Outcome 4 Decrease in HbA1C (%).
See this image and copyright information in PMC

Update of

References

References to studies included in this review

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Ilett 2000 {published data only}
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Mehos 2000 {published data only}
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Meredith 2002 {published data only}
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Odegard 2005 {published data only}
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Okamoto 2001 {published data only}
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Paulos 2005 {published data only}
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Peterson 2004 {published data only}
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Sadik 2005 {published data only}
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Schneider 1982 {published data only}
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Solomon 1998 {published data only}
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Sookaneknun 2004 {published data only}
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Stergachis 1987 {published data only}
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Taylor 2003 {published data only}
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Tsuyuki 2002 {published data only}
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Turner 2000 {published data only}
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Van Veldhuizen 1995 {published data only}
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Watson 2001 {published data only}
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Weinberger 2002 {published data only}
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References to studies excluded from this review

Abramowitz 1982 {published data only}
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Bouvy 2003 {published data only}
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Brook 2003b {published data only}
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Davidson 2000 {published data only}
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Garnett 1981 {published data only}
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Gourley 1998 {published data only}
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Ibrahim 1990 {published data only}
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Jameson 2001 {published data only}
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Johnson 1998 {published data only}
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Jones 1991 {published data only}
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Karki 1988 {published data only}
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Knoell 1998 {published data only}
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Krska 2001 {published data only}
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Lai 1998 {published data only}
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Law 2003 {published data only}
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Lim 2004 {published data only}
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Malone 2000 {published data only}
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Malone 2003 {published data only}
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McKenney 1973 {published data only}
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Murray 2004 {published data only}
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Murray 2004a {published data only}
    1. Murray MD, Young JM, Morrow DG, Weiner M, Tu W, Hoke SC, et al. Methodology of an ongoing, randomized, controlled trial to improve drug use for elderly patients with chronic heart failure. American Journal of Geriatric Pharmacotherapy 2004;2:53‐65. - PubMed
Peterson 1995 {published data only}
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Peterson 1996 {published data only}
    1. Peterson GM, Bergin JK, Nelson BJ, Stanton LA. Improving drug use in rheumatic disorders. Journal of Clinical Pharmacy and Therapeutics 1996;21(4):215‐20. - PubMed
Peterson 1997 {published data only}
    1. Peterson GM, Stanton LA, Bergin JK, Chapman GA. Improving the prescribing of antibiotics for urinary tract infection. Journal of Clinical Pharmacy and Therapeutics 1997;22(2):147‐53. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Powers 1983 {published data only}
    1. Powers DA, Hamilton CW, Roberts KB. Pharmacist intervention in methadone administration to cancer patients with chronic pain. American Journal of Hospital Pharmacy 1983;40(9):1520‐3. - PubMed
Raisch 1990 {published data only}
    1. Raisch DW, Bootman JL, Larson LN, McGhan WF. Improving antiulcer agent prescribing in a health maintenance organization. American Journal of Hospital Pharmacy 1990;47(8):1766‐73. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Rathbun 2005 {published data only}
    1. Rathbun RC, Farmer KC, Stephens JR, Lockhart SM. Impact of an adherence clinic on behavioral outcomes and virologic response in treatment of HIV infection: A prospective, randomized, controlled pilot study. Clinical Therapeutics 2005;27(2):199‐209. - PubMed
Rodgers 1999 {published data only}
    1. Rodgers S, Avery AJ, Meechan D, Briant S, Geraghty M, Doran K, et al. Controlled trial of pharmacist intervention in general practice: The effect on prescribing costs. British Journal of General Practice 1999;49(446):717‐20. - PMC - PubMed
Rogers 1998 {published data only}
    1. Rogers KC, Johnson GL, White DM, Becker DM. Outcomes of clinical pharmacists' recommendations on prescribing of oral H2 antagonists. Hospital Pharmacy 1998;33:1102‐1104 +1110.
Schaffner 1983 {published data only}
    1. Schaffner W, Ray WA, Federspiel CF, Miller WO. Improving antibiotic prescribing in office practice. A controlled trial of three educational methods. Journal of the American Medical Association 1983;250(13):1728‐32. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Sczupak 1977 {published data only}
    1. Sczupak CA, Conrad WF. Relationship between patient‐oriented pharmaceutical services and therapeutic outcomes of ambulatory patients with diabetes mellitus. American Journal of Hospital Pharmacy 1977;34:1238‐42. - PubMed
Sellors 2001 {published data only}
    1. Sellors C, Dalby DM, Howard M, Kaczorowski J, Sellors J. A pharmacist consultation service in community‐based family practices: A randomized, controlled trial in seniors. Journal of Pharmacy Technology 2001;17:264‐9.
Sellors 2003 {published data only}
    1. Sellors J, Kaczorowski J, Sellors C, Dolovich L, Woodward C, Willan A, et al. A randomized controlled trial of a pharmacist consultation program for family physicians and their elderly patients. CMAJ 2003;169(1):17‐22. - PMC - PubMed
Shaw 2000 {published data only}
    1. Shaw H, Mackie CA, Sharkie I. Evaluation of effect of pharmacy discharge planning on medication problems experienced by discharged acute admission mental health patients. International Journal of Pharmacy Practice 2000;8:144‐53.
Shibley 1997 {published data only}
    1. Shibley MC, Pugh CB. Implementation of pharmaceutical care services for patients with hyperlipidemias by independent community pharmacy practitioners. Annals of Pharmacotherapy 1997;31(6):713‐9. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Sidel 1990 {published data only}
    1. Sidel VW, Beizer JL, Lisi‐Fazio D, Kleinmann K, Wenston J, Thomas C, et al. Controlled study of the impact of educational home visits by pharmacists to high‐risk older patients. Journal of Community Health 1990;15(3):163‐74. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Simpson 2001 {published data only}
    1. Simpson SH, Johnson JA, Tsuyuki RT. Economic impact of community pharmacist intervention in cholesterol risk management: An evaluation of the study of cardiovascular risk intervention by pharmacists. Pharmacotherapy 2001;21(5):627‐35. - PubMed
Simpson 2004 {published data only}
    1. Simpson SH, Johnson JA, Biggs RS, Tsuyuki RT. Greater effect of enhanced pharmacist care on cholesterol management in patients with diabetes mellitus: A planned subgroup analysis of the Study of Cardiovascular Risk Intervention by Pharmacists (SCRIP). Pharmacotherapy 2004;24(3):389‐94. - PubMed
Smith 1999 {published data only}
    1. Smith DH, Fassett WE, Christensen DB. Washington State CARE Project: downstream cost changes associated with the provision of cognitive services by pharmacists. Journal of the American Pharmacists Association 1999;39(5):650‐7. - PubMed
Soumerai 1986 {published data only}
    1. Soumerai SB, Avorn J. Economic and policy analysis of university‐based drug "detailing". Medical Care 1986;24(4):313‐31. - PubMed
Steele 1989 {published data only}
    1. Steele MA, Bess DT, Franse VL, Graber SE. Cost effectiveness of two interventions for reducing outpatient prescribing costs. DICP 1989;23(6):497‐500. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Tamai 1987 {published data only}
    1. Tamai IY, Rubenstein LZ, Josephson KR, Yamauchi JA. Impact of computerized drug profiles and a consulting pharmacist on outpatient prescribing patterns: a clinical trial. Drug Intelligence and Clinical Pharmacy 1987;21(11):890‐5. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Varma 1999 {published data only}
    1. Varma S, McElnay JC, Hughes CM, Passmore AP, Varma M. Pharmaceutical care of patients with congestive heart failure: Interventions and outcomes. Pharmacotherapy 1999;19(7):860‐9. - PubMed
Vrijens 2006 {published data only}
    1. Vrijens B, Belmans A, Matthys K, Klerk E, Lesaffre E. Effect of intervention through a pharmaceutical care program on patient adherence with prescribed once‐daily atorvastatin. Pharmacoepidemiology and Drug Safety 2006;15(2):115‐21. - PubMed
Wandless 1981 {published data only}
    1. Wandless I, Whitmore J. The effect of counseling by a pharmacist on drug compliance in elderly patients. Journal of Clinical and Hospital Pharmacy 1981;6(1):51‐6. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Yamada 2005 {published data only}
    1. Yamada C, Johnson JA, Robertson P, Pearson G, Tsuyuki RT. Long‐term impact of a community pharmacist intervention on cholesterol levels in patients at high risk for cardiovascular events: Extended follow‐up of the second study of cardiovascular risk intervention by pharmacists (SCRIP‐plus). Pharmacotherapy 2005;25(1):110‐5. - PubMed
Zermansky 2001 {published data only}
    1. Zermansky AG, Petty DR, Raynor DK, Freemantle N, Vail A, Lowe CJ. Randomised controlled trial of clinical medication review by a pharmacist of elderly patients receiving repeat prescriptions in general practice. BMJ 2001;323(7325):1340‐3. - PMC - PubMed

References to studies awaiting assessment

Bond 2007 {published data only}
    1. Bond C. The MEDMAN study: A randomized controlled trial of community pharmacy‐led medicines management for patients with coronary heart disease." Family Practice. Family Practice 2007;24:189‐200. - PubMed
Bond 2007a {published data only}
    1. Bond CMA, Fish A, Porteous T, Reid J, Scott A, Antonazzo E. A randomised controlled trial of the effects of note‐based medication review by community pharmacists on prescribing of cardiovascular drugs in general practice. International Journal of Pharmacy Practice 2007;15:39‐46.
Cameron 2006 {published data only}
    1. Cameron IM, Matheson CI, Bond CM, McNamee P, Lawrie T, Robinson A, et al. Pilot randomised controlled trial of community pharmacy administration of buprenorphine versus methadone. International Journal of Pharmacy Practice 2006;14:243‐8.
Carter 2008 {published data only}
    1. Carter BL, Bergus GR, Dawson JD, Farris KB, Doucette WR, Chrischilles EA, et al. A cluster randomized trial to evaluate physician/pharmacist collaboration to improve blood pressure control. Journal of Clinical Hypertension 2008;10:260‐71. - PMC - PubMed
Carter 2009 {published data only}
    1. Carter BL, Ardery G, Dawson JD, James PA, Bergus GR, Doucette WR, et al. Physician and pharmacist collaboration to improve blood pressure control. Archives of Internal Medicine 2009;169:1996‐2002. - PMC - PubMed
Chan 2006 {published data only}
    1. Chan FW, Wong RS, Lau WH, Chan TY, Cheng G, You JH. Management of Chinese patients on warfarin therapy in two models of anticoagulation service ‐ a prospective randomized trial. British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 2006;62:601‐9. - PMC - PubMed
Charrois 2006 {published data only}
    1. Charrois LT, Newman CS, Senthilselvan A, Tsuyuki TR. Improving asthma control in the rural setting: The BREATHE (Better Respiratory Education and Asthma Treatment in Hinton and Edson) study. Canadian Pharmacists Journal 2006;139(4):44‐50.
Chisholm 2002 {published data only}
    1. Chisholm MA, Mulloy LL, Jagadeesan M, Martin BC, DiPiro JT. Effect of clinical pharmacy services on the blood pressure of African‐American renal transplant patients. Ethnicity and Disease 2002;12:392‐7. - PubMed
Cordina 2001 {published data only}
    1. Cordina M, McElnay JC, Hughes CM. Assessment of a community pharmacy‐based program for patients with asthma. Pharmacotherapy 2001;21:1196‐203. - PubMed
Faulkner 2000 {published data only}
    1. Faulkner MA, Wadibia EC, Lucas BD, Hilleman DE. Impact of pharmacy counseling on compliance and effectiveness of combination lipid‐lowering therapy in patients undergoing coronary artery revascularization: a randomized, controlled trial. Pharmacotherapy 2000;20:410‐6. - PubMed
Feldstein 2006 {published data only}
    1. Feldstein AC, Smith DH, Perrin N, Yang X, Rix M, Raebel MA, et al. Improved therapeutic monitoring with several interventions: a randomized trial. Archives of Internal Medicine 2006;166:1848‐54. - PubMed
Fornos 2006 {published data only}
    1. Fornos JA, Andres NF, Andres JC, Guerra MM, Egea B. A pharmacotherapy follow‐up program in patients with type‐2 diabetes in community pharmacies in Spain. Pharmacy World and Science 2006;28:65‐72. - PubMed
Hay 2006 {published data only}
    1. Hay EM, Foster NE, Thomas E, Peat G, Phelan M, Yates HE, et al. Effectiveness of community physiotherapy and enhanced pharmacy review for knee pain in people aged over 55 presenting to primary care: pragmatic randomised trial. BMJ 2006;333:995. - PMC - PubMed
Hennessy 2006 {published data only}
    1. Hennessy S, Leonard CE, Yang W, Kimmel SE, Townsend RR, Wasserstein AG, et al. Effectiveness of a two‐part educational intervention to improve hypertension control: a cluster‐randomized trial. Pharmacotherapy 2006;26:1342‐7. - PubMed
Kritikos 2007 {published data only}
    1. Kritikos V, Armour CL, Bosnic‐Anticevich SZ. Interactive small‐group asthma education in the community pharmacy setting: a pilot study. Journal of Asthma 2007;44:57‐64. - PubMed
Kwan 2007 {published data only}
    1. Kwan Y, Fernandes OA, Nagge JJ, Wong GG, Huh JH, Hurn DA, et al. Pharmacist medication assessments in a surgical preadmission clinic. Archives of Internal Medicine 2007;167:1034‐40. - PubMed
Lopez 2006 {published data only}
    1. Lopez Cabezas C, Falces Salvador C, Cubi Quadrada D, Arnau Bartes A, Ylla Bore M, Muro Perea N, et al. Randomized clinical trial of a postdischarge pharmaceutical care program vs regular follow‐up in patients with heart failure. Farmacia Hospitalaria 2006;30:328‐42. - PubMed
Maguire 2001 {published data only}
    1. Maguire TA, McElnay JC, Drummond A. A randomized controlled trial of a smoking cessation intervention based in community pharmacies. Addiction 2001;96:325‐31. - PubMed
Murray 2007 {published data only}
    1. Murray DM, Young J, Hoke S, Wanzhu T, Weiner M, Morrow D, et al. Pharmacist intervention to improve medication adherence in heart failure. Annals of Internal Medicine 2007;146:714‐25. - PubMed
Raebel 2005 {published data only}
    1. Raebel MA, Lyons EE, Chester EA, Bodily MA, Kelleher JA, Long CL, et al. Improving laboratory monitoring at initiation of drug therapy in ambulatory care: a randomized trial. Archives of Internal Medicine 2005;165:2395‐401. - PubMed
Raebel 2006 {published data only}
    1. Raebel MA, Chester EA, Newsom EE, Lyons EE, Kelleher JA, Long C, et al. Randomized trial to improve laboratory safety monitoring of ongoing drug therapy in ambulatory patients. Pharmacotherapy 2006;26:619‐26. - PubMed
Raebel 2007 {published data only}
    1. Raebel MA, Charles J, Dugan J, Carroll NM, Korner EJ, Brand DW, et al. Randomized trial to improve prescribing safety in ambulatory elderly patients. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society 2007;55:977‐85. - PubMed
Rehring 2006 {published data only}
    1. Rehring TF, Stolcpart RS, Sandhoff BG, Merenich JA, Hollis HW Jr. Effect of a clinical pharmacy service on lipid control in patients with peripheral arterial disease. Journal of Vascular Surgery 2006;43:1205‐10. - PubMed
Reid 2005 {published data only}
    1. Reid F, Murray P, Storrie M. Implementation of a pharmacist‐led clinic for hypertensive patients in primary care‐‐a pilot study. Pharmacy World and Science 2005;27:202‐7. - PubMed
Rothman 2005 {published data only}
    1. Rothman RL, Malone R, Bryant B, Shintani AK, Crigler B, Dewalt DA, et al. A randomized trial of a primary care‐based disease management program to improve cardiovascular risk factors and glycated hemoglobin levels in patients with diabetes. American Journal of Medicine 2005;118:276‐84. - PubMed
Simon 2000 {published data only}
    1. Simon GE, VonKorff M, Rutter C, Wagner E. Randomised trial of monitoring, feedback, and management of care by telephone to improve treatment of depression in primary care. BMJ 2000;320:550‐4. - PMC - PubMed
Stergachis 2002 {published data only}
    1. Stergachis A, Gardner JS, Anderson MT, Sullivan SD. Improving pediatric asthma outcomes in the community setting: does pharmaceutical care make a difference?. Journal of the American Pharmacists Association 2002;42:743‐52. - PubMed
Sturgess 2003 {published data only}
    1. Sturgess IK, McElnay JC, Hughes CM, Crealey G. Community pharmacy based provision of pharmaceutical care to older patients. Pharmacy World and Science 2003;25:218‐26. - PubMed
Vivian 2002 {published data only}
    1. Vivian EM. Improving blood pressure control in a pharmacist‐managed hypertension clinic. Pharmacotherapy 2002;22:1533‐40. - PubMed
Volume 2001 {published data only}
    1. Volume CI, Farris KB, Kassam R, Cox CE, Cave A. Pharmaceutical care research and education project: patient outcomes. Journal of the American Pharmacists Association 2001;41:411‐20. - PubMed
Welschen 2004 {published data only}
    1. Welschen I, Kuyvenhoven MM, Hoes AW, Verheij TJ. Effectiveness of a multiple intervention to reduce antibiotic prescribing for respiratory tract symptoms in primary care: randomised controlled trial. BMJ 2004;329:431. - PMC - PubMed
Wiedemer 2007 {published data only}
    1. Wiedemer NL, Harden PS, Arndt IO, Gallagher RM. The opioid renewal clinic: a primary care, managed approach to opioid therapy in chronic pain patients at risk for substance abuse. Pain Medicine 2007;8:573‐84. - PubMed
Wu 2006 {published data only}
    1. Wu JY, Leung WY, Chang S, Lee B, Zee B, Tong PC, et al. Effectiveness of telephone counselling by a pharmacist in reducing mortality in patients receiving polypharmacy: randomised controlled trial. BMJ 2006;333:522. - PMC - PubMed
Yuan 2003 {published data only}
    1. Yuan Y, Hay JW, McCombs JS. Effects of ambulatory‐care pharmacist consultation on mortality and hospitalization. American Journal of Managed Care 2003;9:45‐56. - PubMed
Zillich 2005 {published data only}
    1. Zillich AJ, Sutherland JM, Kumbera PA, Carter BL. Hypertension outcomes through blood pressure monitoring and evaluation by pharmacists (HOME study). Journal of General Internal Medicine 2005;20:1091‐6. - PMC - PubMed

Additional references

Beney 2000
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Dent 2007
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    1. Donovan JL, Drake JA, Whittaker P, Tran MT. Pharmacy‐managed anticoagulation: assessment of in‐hospital efficacy and evaluation of financial impact and community acceptance. Journal of Thrombosis and Thrombolysis 2006;22(1):23‐30. [PUBMED: 16786229] - PubMed
Finley 2003
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Machado 2007a
    1. Machado M, Bajcar J, Guzzo GC, Einarson TR. Sensitivity of patient outcomes to pharmacist interventions. Part II: Systematic review and meta‐analysis in hypertension management. The Annals of Pharmacotherapy 2007;41(11):1770‐81. [PUBMED: 17925496] - PubMed
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