Influence of parental depressive symptoms on adopted toddler behaviors: an emerging developmental cascade of genetic and environmental effects

Abstract

This study examined the developmental cascade of both genetic and environmental influences on toddlers' behavior problems through the longitudinal and multigenerational assessment of psychosocial risk. We used data from the Early Growth and Development Study, a prospective adoption study, to test the intergenerational transmission of risk through the assessment of adoptive mother, adoptive father, and biological parent depressive symptoms on toddler behavior problems. Given that depression is often chronic, we control for across-time continuity and find that in addition to associations between adoptive mother depressive symptoms and toddler externalizing problems, adoptive father depressive symptoms when the child is 9 months of age were associated with toddler problems and associated with maternal depressive symptoms. Findings also indicated that a genetic effect may indirectly influence toddler problems through prenatal pregnancy risk. These findings help to describe how multiple generations are linked through genetic (biological parent), timing (developmental age of the child), and contextual (marital partner) pathways.

Figure 1

Example structural equation model where the timing of the influence of AP depressive symptoms on child externalizing problems at 27 months is tested in the presence of BM depressive symptoms. Each AP measurement has a direct path to child externalizing problems.

Figure 2

Example structural equation model where a latent factor of AP depressive symptoms predicts child externalizing problems at 27 months in the presence of BM depressive symptoms. Each AP measurement is loaded onto a latent factor of AP depressive symptoms.

Figure 3

Structural equation model predicting child externalizing problems at 27 months. This full model includes, AFs, AMs, BM, pregnancy risk, and 9 month child fussiness. Solid lines represent significant paths; dotted lines are insignificant. Note. ⁺ = p < .10; * = p < .05.

Figure 4

Structural equation model predicting child externalizing problems at 27 months. This full model includes, AFs, AMs, BM, pregnancy risk, and 9 month child fussiness. This model includes the indirect effect of BM depressive symptoms on 27 child externalizing symptoms through pregnancy risk and the effect of AF 9 month depressive symptoms on AM depressive symptoms. Note. ⁺ = p < .10; * = p < .05.