Changes in sleep as a function of adolescent development

Abstract

Adolescence is marked by dramatic changes in sleep. Older adolescents go to bed later, have an increased preference for evening activities, and sleep less than younger adolescents. This behavior change is driven by external factors, notably increased pressures from academic, social, and extracurricular activities and by biological circadian factors. There are also substantial changes in sleep architecture across adolescence, with dramatic declines in slow wave sleep, and slow wave activity (delta, ~ 0.5-4.5 Hz). These changes are associated with underlying changes in brain structure and organization, with a decrease in synaptic density likely underlying the reduction in high amplitude slow waveforms. While changes in sleep across adolescence are a normal part of development, many adolescents are getting insufficient sleep and are consequently, less likely to perform well at school, more likely to develop mood-related disturbances, be obese, and are at greater risk for traffic accidents, alcohol and drug abuse.

Fig. 1

Reproduced from Feinberg and Campbell (2010). The data from their ongoing longitudinal study of sleep EEG show the change in (A) delta and (B) theta EEG activity across childhood and adolescence

Fig. 2

Representation of electrodes placed on the scalp according to the 10–20 convention. Most clinical sleep studies used C3 and C4. The new American Academy of Sleep Medicine guidelines (Iber et al. 2007) specify the addition of a frontal lead (F3 or F4) and an occipital lead (O1 or O2). High density EEG recordings (e.g., (Kurth, Ringli, et al. 2010)) can use more electrodes than those represented by adding additional sites in between the 10–20 positions

Fig. 3

Reproduced from Kurth, Ringli, et al. (2010). Maps of EEG power during NREM sleep. Topographical distribution of NREM sleep EEG power for the defined age groups and frequency ranges (n=53). Maps are based on 109 derivations from the first 60 min of NREM sleep stages 2 and 3. Maps were normalized for each individual and then averaged for each age group. Values are color coded (maxima in red, minima in blue) and plotted on the planar projection of the hemispheric scalp model. To optimize contrast, each map was proportionally scaled, and values between the electrodes were interpolated. At the top right of the maps, numbers indicate maxima and minima (in square microvolts) for each plot

Fig. 4

Upper panel reproduced from Terman and Hocking (1913). The data reflect hours of sleep in children aged 6 to 13 years. The thick line represents the data collected by Terman and Hocking in the western U.S. The dotted thin line represent data from Ravenhill (1910) collected in England and the thin solid line represent data from Bernhard (1908) collected in Germany. The comparison line at the top of the figure are the theoretical ideal values postulated by Dukes (1899). Lower panel reproduced from Olds et al. (2010a) showing the results of a meta analysis of data from different geographic regions. The data represent the output of linear regressions conducted within each regions predicting total sleep time in minutes plotted by age