Genetic evidence for Rift Valley fever outbreaks in Madagascar resulting from virus introductions from the East African mainland rather than enzootic maintenance

Abstract

Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV), a mosquito-borne phlebovirus, has been detected in Madagascar since 1979, with occasional outbreaks. In 2008 to 2009, a large RVFV outbreak was detected in Malagasy livestock and humans during two successive rainy seasons. To determine whether cases were due to enzootic maintenance of the virus within Madagascar or to importation from the East African mainland, nine RVFV whole genomic sequences were generated for viruses from the 1991 and 2008 Malagasy outbreaks. Bayesian coalescent analyses of available whole S, M, and L segment sequences were used to estimate the time to the most recent common ancestor for the RVFVs. The 1979 Madagascar isolate shared a common ancestor with strains on the mainland around 1972. The 1991 Madagascar isolates were in a clade distinct from that of the 1979 isolate and shared a common ancestor around 1987. Finally, the 2008 Madagascar viruses were embedded within a large clade of RVFVs from the 2006-2007 outbreak in East Africa and shared a common ancestor around 2003 to 2004. These results suggest that the most recent Madagascar outbreak was caused by a virus likely arriving in the country some time between 2003 and 2008 and that this outbreak may be an extension of the 2006-2007 East African outbreak. Clustering of the Malagasy sequences into subclades indicates that the viruses have continued to evolve during their short-term circulation within the country. These data are consistent with the notion that RVFV outbreaks in Madagascar result not from emergence from enzootic cycles within the country but from recurrent virus introductions from the East African mainland.

Fig. 1.

Bayesian coalescent analysis of RVFVs based on the S segment. The maximum clade credibility tree is shown with the year of the MRCA, in boldface, at each node. Viruses from Madagascar and nodes containing associated MRCA estimates are shown in red. Lineages from the 2006–2007 East African outbreak are designated Kenya I and Kenya II.

Fig. 2.

Bayesian coalescent analysis of RVFVs based on the M segment. The maximum clade credibility tree is shown with the year of the MRCA, in boldface, at each node. Viruses from Madagascar and nodes containing associated MRCA estimates are shown in red. KI, Kenya-I lineage; KII, Kenya-II lineage.

Fig. 3.

Bayesian coalescent analysis of RVFVs based on the L segment. The maximum clade credibility tree is shown with the year of the MRCA, in boldface, at each node. Viruses from Madagascar and nodes containing associated MRCA estimates are shown in red. KI, Kenya-I lineage; KII, Kenya-II lineage.