Light microscopy with doughnut modes: a concept to detect, characterize, and manipulate individual nanoobjects

Abstract

Higher order laser modes, mainly called doughnut modes (DMs) have use in many different branches of research, such as, bio-imaging, material science, single-molecule microscopy, and spectroscopy. The main reason of their increasing importance is that recently, the techniques to generate well-defined DMs have been refined or rediscovered. Although their potential is still not fully utilized, their specifically polarized field distribution gives rise to a wide field of applications. They are contributing to complete our fundamental knowledge of the optical properties of single emitting species, such as molecules, nanoparticles, or quantum dots, offering insight into the three-dimensional dipole or particle orientation in space. The perfect zero intensity in the focus center qualifies some DMs for stimulated emission depletion (STED) microscopy. For the same reason, they have been suggested for trapping and tweezing applications.