Interactions between lead and essential elements: a review

Abstract

Young children are especially susceptible to the toxic effects of lead. Although the effects of overt lead intoxication have been well studied, critical information on the long-term effects of low level lead exposure is lacking. The results of recent clinical studies indicate that "chronic" low level lead exposure during development can result in behavioral alterations in the absence of overt neurotoxicity. The perturbation of central nervous system functioning may be the result of essential mineral deficiencies resulting from lead-induced impairment of mineral availability and/or an increased sensitivity to lead in the absence of adequate levels of essential minerals. This article reviews research undertaken to examine the interactions between calcium, iron, zinc, copper and lead with reference to how this may impact central nervous system functioning.