Ultrastructure of sperm, spermiogenesis, and sperm-egg interactions in selected invertebrates and lower vertebrates which use external fertilization

Abstract

This review discusses the ultrastructure of sperm with reference to their development, the surface morphology of the egg, and the processes of sperm binding and penetration during fertilization. These topics are treated for selected invertebrates and lower vertebrates which live in aquatic environments and fertilize their eggs externally. Specifically, sperm eggs from cnidarians, echinoderms, decapod crustaceans, ascidians, lampreys, bony fishes, and amphibians are discussed. Sperm from the majority of these groups exhibit the classical head-midregion-tail configuration characteristic of primitive sperm. Specific variations within this general morphology have been described. The notable exceptions to the primitive-sperm paradigm are the sperm of decapod crustaceans and amphibians. Eggs from all of the animals considered are covered by complex vitelline envelopes except those of cnidarians. In general, the ultrastructural analysis of these egg envelopes shows that they are composed of fibrous subunits. Sperm bind to the vitelline envelope and then penetrate through it to fertilize the egg in all groups reviewed except fishes. In sperm ultrastructure which occur during penetration of the egg envelopes in both flagellated and non-flagellated sperm. These changes, which involve membrane fusion and reorganization as well as movement of membranous organelles, aid the sperm in reaching the actual site of gamete fusion.