Skip to main page content
U.S. flag

An official website of the United States government

Dot gov

The .gov means it’s official.
Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

Https

The site is secure.
The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

Access keys NCBI Homepage MyNCBI Homepage Main Content Main Navigation
Meta-Analysis
. 2012 Jan 18;1(1):CD009037.
doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD009037.pub2.

Interventions for pregnant women with hyperglycaemia not meeting gestational diabetes and type 2 diabetes diagnostic criteria

Shanshan Han  1 , Caroline A Crowther, Philippa Middleton
Affiliations
Meta-Analysis

Interventions for pregnant women with hyperglycaemia not meeting gestational diabetes and type 2 diabetes diagnostic criteria

Shanshan Han et al. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. .

Abstract

Background: Pregnancy hyperglycaemia without meeting gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) diagnostic criteria affects a significant proportion of pregnant women each year. It is associated with a range of adverse pregnancy outcomes. Although intensive management for women with GDM has been proven beneficial for women and their babies, there is little known about the effects of treating women with hyperglycaemia who do not meet diagnostic criteria for GDM and type 2 diabetes (T2DM).

Objectives: To assess the effects of different types of management strategies for pregnant women with hyperglycaemia not meeting diagnostic criteria for GDM and T2DM (referred as borderline GDM in this review).

Search methods: We searched the Cochrane Pregnancy and Childbirth Group's Trials Register (30 September 2011).

Selection criteria: Randomised and cluster-randomised trials comparing alternative management strategies for women with borderline GDM.

Data collection and analysis: Two review authors independently assessed study eligibility, extracted data and assessed risk of bias of included studies. Data were checked for accuracy.

Main results: We included four trials involving 543 women and their babies (but only data from 521 women and their babies is included in our analyses). Three of the four included studies had moderate to high risk of bias and one study was at low to moderate risk of bias. Babies born to women receiving management for borderline GDM (generally dietary counselling and metabolic monitoring) were less likely to be macrosomic (birthweight greater than 4000 g) (three trials, 438 infants, risk ratio (RR) 0.38, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.19 to 0.74) or large-for-gestational (LGA) age (three trials, 438 infants, RR 0.37, 95% CI 0.20 to 0.66) when compared with those born to women in the routine care group. There were no significant differences in rates of caesarean section (three trials, 509 women, RR 0.93, 95% CI 0.68 to 1.27) and operative vaginal birth (one trial, 83 women, RR 1.37, 95% CI 0.20 to 9.27) between the two groups.

Authors' conclusions: This review found interventions including providing dietary advice and blood glucose level monitoring for women with pregnancy hyperglycaemia not meeting GDM and T2DM diagnostic criteria helped reduce the number of macrosomic and LGA babies without increasing caesarean section and operative vaginal birth rates. It is important to notice that the results of this review were based on four small randomised trials with moderate to high risk of bias without follow-up outcomes for both women and their babies.

PubMed Disclaimer

Conflict of interest statement

None known.

Figures

1
1
Risk of bias summary: review authors' judgements about each risk of bias item for each included study.
2
2
Risk of bias graph: review authors' judgements about each risk of bias item presented as percentages across all included studies.
1.1
1.1. Analysis
Comparison 1 Intensive management versus routine care, Outcome 1 Large‐for‐gestational age.
1.2
1.2. Analysis
Comparison 1 Intensive management versus routine care, Outcome 2 Macrosomia.
1.3
1.3. Analysis
Comparison 1 Intensive management versus routine care, Outcome 3 Large‐for‐gestational age or macrosomia.
1.4
1.4. Analysis
Comparison 1 Intensive management versus routine care, Outcome 4 Caesarean section.
1.5
1.5. Analysis
Comparison 1 Intensive management versus routine care, Outcome 5 Operative vaginal delivery.
1.6
1.6. Analysis
Comparison 1 Intensive management versus routine care, Outcome 6 Birthweight (gram).
1.7
1.7. Analysis
Comparison 1 Intensive management versus routine care, Outcome 7 Ponderal index (gram x 100/m3).
1.8
1.8. Analysis
Comparison 1 Intensive management versus routine care, Outcome 8 Preterm birth.
1.9
1.9. Analysis
Comparison 1 Intensive management versus routine care, Outcome 9 Gestational age at birth (week).
1.10
1.10. Analysis
Comparison 1 Intensive management versus routine care, Outcome 10 Admission to neonatal intensive care unit.
1.11
1.11. Analysis
Comparison 1 Intensive management versus routine care, Outcome 11 Small‐for‐gestational age.
1.12
1.12. Analysis
Comparison 1 Intensive management versus routine care, Outcome 12 Shoulder dystocia.
1.13
1.13. Analysis
Comparison 1 Intensive management versus routine care, Outcome 13 Neonatal hypoglycaemia.
1.14
1.14. Analysis
Comparison 1 Intensive management versus routine care, Outcome 14 Hyperbilirubinaemia.
1.15
1.15. Analysis
Comparison 1 Intensive management versus routine care, Outcome 15 Induction of labour.
1.16
1.16. Analysis
Comparison 1 Intensive management versus routine care, Outcome 16 Weight gain during pregnancy (kg).
1.17
1.17. Analysis
Comparison 1 Intensive management versus routine care, Outcome 17 insulin or oral hypoglycaemic agent required for hyperglycaemia.
1.18
1.18. Analysis
Comparison 1 Intensive management versus routine care, Outcome 18 Pre‐eclampsia.
See this image and copyright information in PMC

Update of

  • doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD009037

Similar articles

See all similar articles

Cited by

See all "Cited by" articles

References

References to studies included in this review

Bevier 1999 {published data only}
    1. Bevier WC, Fischer R, Jovanovic L. Treatment of women with an abnormal glucose challenge test (but a normal oral glucose tolerance test) decreases the prevalence of macrosomia. American Journal of Perinatology 1999;16:269‐75. - PubMed
Bonomo 2005 {published data only}
    1. Bonomo M, Corica D, Mion E, Gonçalves D, Motta G, Merati R, et al. Evaluating the therapeutic approach in pregnancies complicated by borderline glucose intolerance: a randomized clinical trial. Diabetic Medicine 2005;22(11):1536‐41. - PubMed
Grant 2011 {published data only}
    1. Grant SM, Wolever TMS, O'Connor DL, Nisenbaum R, Josse RG. Effect of a low glycaemic index diet on blood glucose in women with gestational hyperglycaemia. Diabetes Research and Clinical Practice 2011;91(1):15‐22. - PubMed
Langer 1989 {published data only}
    1. Langer O, Anyaegbunam A, Brustman L, Divon M. A prospective randomized study: management of women with one abnormal value (OGTT) reduces adverse outcome in pregnancy. Proceedings of 9th Annual Meeting of the Society of Perinatal Obstetricians; 1989 Feb 1‐4; New Orleans, Louisiana, USA. 1989:11.
    1. Langer O, Anyaegbunam A, Brustman L, Divon M. Management of women with one abnormal oral glucose tolerance test value reduces adverse outcome in pregnancy. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 1989;161:593‐9. - PubMed

References to studies excluded from this review

Bung 1993 {published data only}
    1. Bung P, Artal R, Khodiguian N. Regular exercise therapy in disturbed carbohydrate metabolism during pregnancy ‐ results of a prospective randomised longitudinal study. Geburtshilfe und Frauenheilkunde 1993;53:188‐93. - PubMed
Dunne 2001 {published data only}
    1. Dunne FP. Randomized trial of twice daily versus four times daily insulin regimens for the treatment of gestational diabetes and gestationally acquired impaired glucose tolerance. National Research Register (www.nrr.nhs.uk) (accessed 2001).
Ford 1997 {published data only}
    1. Ford FA, Bruce CB, Fraser RB. Preliminary report of a randomised trial of dietary advice in women with mild abnormalities of glucose tolerance in pregnancy. Personal communication 1997.
Li 1987 {published data only}
    1. Li DFH, Wong VCW, O'Hoy KMKY, Yeung CY, Ma HK. Is treatment needed for mild impairment of glucose tolerance in pregnancy? A randomized controlled trial. British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology 1987;94:851‐4. - PubMed
Li 1999 {published data only}
    1. Li P, Yang H, Dong Y. Treating women with gestational impaired glucose tolerance reduces adverse outcome of pregnancy. Chung‐Hua Fu Chan Ko Tsa Chih [Chinese Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology] 1999;34(8):462‐4. - PubMed
Maresh 1983 {published data only}
    1. Maresh M, Alderson C, Beard RW, Bloxham B, Elkeles RS, Gillmer MDG. Comparison of insulin against diet treatment in the management of abnormal carbohydrate tolerance in pregnancy. Nutrition in pregnancy. Proceedings of 10th Study Group of the RCOG; 1983. London: RCOG, 1983:255‐67.
Yang 2003 {published data only}
    1. Yang X, Hsu‐Hage B, Dong L, Shao P, Wang H, Tian H, et al. Intensive diabetes management may improve pregnancy outcomes in Chinese gravidas with impaired glucose tolerance. Diabetes Care 2003;26:254‐5. - PubMed

References to ongoing studies

Crowther 2007 {published data only}
    1. Crowther C. Dietary and lifestyle advice for women with borderline gestational glucose intolerance. Australian Clinical Trials Registry (www.actr.org.au) (accessed 21 June 2007) 2007.
Wolever 2011 [pers comm] {unpublished data only}
    1. Wolever T. Low‐glycaemic index diet compared with control diet (intermediate‐ and high‐glycaemic index diet. Email to S Han May 2011.

Additional references

ACOG 2001
    1. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists Committee on Practice Bulletins‐‐Obstetrics. ACOG Practice Bulletin. Clinical management guidelines for obstetrician‐gynecologists. Number 30, September 2001 (replaces Technical Bulletin Number 200, December 1994). Gestational diabetes. Obstetrics & Gynecology 2001;98(3):525‐38. - PubMed
ADA 2009
    1. American Diabetes Association. Diagnosis and classification of diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Care 2009;32(Suppl 1):S62‐S67. - PMC - PubMed
Alwan 2009
    1. Alwan N, Tuffnell DJ, West J. Treatments for gestational diabetes. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2009, Issue 3. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD003395.pub2] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Anderberg 2010
    1. Anderberg E, Källén K, Berntorp K. The impact of gestational diabetes mellitus on pregnancy outcome comparing different cut‐off criteria for abnormal glucose tolerance. Acta Obstetricia et Gynecologica Scandinavica 2010;89(12):1532‐7. - PubMed
Barker 1994
    1. Barker D. Mothers, Babies and Diseases in Later Life. London: BMJ Publishing Group, 1994.
Ben‐Haroush 2004
    1. Ben‐Haroush A, Yogev Y, Hod M. Epidemiology of gestational diabetes mellitus and its association with Type 2 diabetes. Diabetic Medicine 2004;21(2):103‐13. - PubMed
Bottalico 2007
    1. Bottalico JN. Recurrent gestational diabetes: risk factors, diagnosis, management, and implications. Seminars in Perinatology 2007;31(3):176‐84. - PubMed
Catalano 2003
    1. Catalano PM, Thomas A, Huston‐Presley L, Amini SB. Increased fetal adiposity: a very sensitive marker of abnormal in utero development. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 2003;189(6):1698‐704. - PubMed
Chasan‐Taber 2008
    1. Chasan‐Taber L, Schmidt MD, Pekow P, Sternfeld B, Manson JE, Solomon CG, et al. Physical activity and gestational diabetes mellitus among Hispanic women. Journal of Women's Health 2008;17(6):999‐1008. - PubMed
Clapp 2006
    1. Clapp JF. Effects of diet and exercise on insulin resistance during pregnancy. Metabolic Syndrome and Related Disorders 2006;4(2):84‐90. - PubMed
Coustan 2010
    1. Coustan DR, Lowe LP, Metzger BE, Dyer AR, International Association of Diabetes and Pregnancy Study Groups. The Hyperglycemia and Adverse Pregnancy Outcome (HAPO) study: paving the way for new diagnostic criteria for gestational diabetes mellitus. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 2010;202(6):654 e1‐6. - PMC - PubMed
Crowther 2005
    1. Crowther CA, Hiller JE, Moss JR, McPhee AJ, Jeffries WS, Robinson JS, Australian Carbohydrate Intolerance Study in Pregnant Women (ACHOIS) Trial Group. Effect of treatment of gestational diabetes mellitus on pregnancy outcomes. New England Journal of Medicine 2005;352(24):2477‐86. - PubMed
Cypryk 2008
    1. Cypryk K, Szymczak W, Czupryniak L, Sobczak M, Lewinski A. Gestational diabetes mellitus ‐ an analysis of risk factors. Endokrynologia Polska (Warszawa) 2008;59(5):393‐97. - PubMed
Dabelea 2000
    1. Dabelea D, Knowler WC, Pettitt DJ. Effect of diabetes in pregnancy on offspring: follow‐up research in the Pima Indians. Journal of Maternal‐Fetal Medicine 2000;9(1):83‐8. - PubMed
Dabelea 2005
    1. Dabelea D, Snell‐Bergeon JK, Hartsfield CL, Bischoff KJ, Hamman RF, McDuffie RS, Kaiser Permanente of Colorado GDM Screening Program. Increasing prevalence of gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) over time and by birth cohort: Kaiser Permanente of Colorado GDM Screening Program. Diabetes Care 2005;28(3):579‐84. - PubMed
Dabelea 2007
    1. Dabelea D. The predisposition to obesity and diabetes in offspring of diabetic mothers. Diabetes Care 2007;30(Suppl 2):S169‐S174. - PubMed
Devlieger 2008
    1. Devlieger R, Casteels K, Assche FA. Reduced adaptation of the pancreatic B cells during pregnancy is the major causal factor for gestational diabetes: current knowledge and metabolic effects on the offspring. Acta Obstetricia et Gynecologica Scandinavica 2008;87(12):1266‐70. - PubMed
Dodd 2007
    1. Dodd JM, Crowther CA, Antoniou G, Baghurst P, Robinson JS. Screening for gestational diabetes: the effect of varying blood glucose definitions in the prediction of adverse maternal and infant health outcomes. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology 2007;47(4):307‐12. - PubMed
Egger 1997
    1. Egger M, Davey Smith G, Schneider M, Minder C. Bias in meta‐analysis detected by a simple, graphical test. BMJ 1997;315(7109):629‐34. - PMC - PubMed
Esakoff 2009
    1. Esakoff TF, Cheng YW, Sparks TN, Caughey AB. The association between birthweight 4000g or greater and perinatal outcomes in patients with and without gestational diabetes mellitus. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 2009;200(6):672.e1‐672.e4. - PubMed
Ferrara 2007
    1. Ferrara A. Increasing prevalence of gestational diabetes mellitus: a public health perspective. Diabetes Care 2007;30(Suppl 2):S141‐S146. - PubMed
Forman 2005
    1. Forman MR, Cantwell MM, Ronckers C, Zhang Y. Through the looking glass at early‐life exposures and breast cancer risk. Cancer Investigation 2005;23(7):609‐24. - PubMed
Guerrero‐Romero 2010
    1. Guerrero‐Romero F, Aradillas‐García C, Simental‐Mendia LE, Monreal‐Escalante E, Cruz Mendoza E, Rodríguez‐Moran M. Birth weight, family history of diabetes, and metabolic syndrome in children and adolescents. Journal of Pediatrics 2010;156(5):719‐23. - PubMed
Harbord 2006
    1. Harbord RM, Egger M, Sterne JA. A modified test for small‐study effects in meta‐analyses of controlled trials with binary endpoints. Statistics in Medicine 2006;25(20):3443‐57. - PubMed
Harder 2009
    1. Harder T, Roepke K, Diller N, Stechling Y, Dudenhausen JW, Plagemann A. Birth weight, early weight gain, and subsequent risk of type 1 diabetes: systematic review and meta‐analysis. American Journal of Epidemiology 2009;169(12):1428‐36. - PubMed
Henriksen 2008
    1. Henriksen T. The macrosomic fetus: a challenge in current obstetrics. Acta Obstetricia et Gynecologica Scandinavica 2008;87(2):134‐45. - PubMed
Higgins 2011
    1. Higgins JPT, Green S, editors. Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions Version 5.1.0 [updated March 2011 ]. The Cochrane Collaboration, 2011. Available from www.cochrane‐handbook.org.
Hillier 2007
    1. Hillier TA, Pedula KL, Schmidt MM, Mullen JA, Charles MA, Pettitt DJ. Childhood obesity and metabolic imprinting: the ongoing effects of maternal hyperglycemia. Diabetes Care 2007;30(9):2287‐92. - PubMed
Hoffman 1998
    1. Hoffman L, Nolan C, Wilson JD, Oats JJ, Simmons D. Gestational diabetes mellitus‐‐management guidelines. The Australasian Diabetes in Pregnancy Society. Medical Journal of Australia 1998;169(2):93‐7. - PubMed
Horvath 2010
    1. Horvath K, Koch K, Jeitler K, Matyas E, Bender R, Bastian H, et al. Effects of treatment in women with gestational diabetes mellitus: systematic review and meta‐analysis. BMJ 2010;340:c1395. [DOI: 10.1136/bmj.c1395; PUBMED: 20360215] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
IADPSG 2010
    1. International Association of Diabetes and Pregnancy Study Groups Consensus Panel, Metzger BE, Gabbe SG, Persson B, Buchanan TA, Catalano PA, Damm P, et al. International association of diabetes and pregnancy study groups recommendations on the diagnosis and classification of hyperglycaemia in pregnancy. Diabetes Care 2010;33(3):676‐82. - PMC - PubMed
IOM 2009
    1. Rasmussen KM, Yaktine AL, Institute of Medicine (US) and National Research Council (US) Committee to Reexamine IOM Pregnancy Weight Guidelines. Weight Gain During Pregnancy: Reexamining the Guidelines. Washington, DC: National Academies Press, 2009. - PubMed
Jastrow 2010
    1. Jastrow N, Roberge S, Gauthier RJ, Laroche L, Duperron L, Brassard N, et al. Effect of birth weight on adverse obstetric outcomes in vaginal birth after cesarean delivery. Obstetrics & Gynecology 2010;115(2 Pt 1):338‐43. - PubMed
Ju 2008
    1. Ju H, Rumbold AR, Willson KJ, Crowther CA. Borderline gestational diabetes mellitus and pregnancy outcomes. BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth 2008;8:31. [DOI: 10.1186/1471-2393-8-31] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Kim 2002
    1. Kim C, Newton KM, Knopp RH. Gestational diabetes and the incidence of type 2 diabetes: a systematic review. Diabetes Care 2002;25:1862‐8. - PubMed
Landon 2009
    1. Landon MB, Spong CY, Thom E, Carpenter MW, Ramin SM, Casey B, et al. A multicenter, randomised trial of treatment for mild gestational diabetes. New England Journal of Medicine 2009;361(14):1339‐48. - PMC - PubMed
Landon 2010
    1. Landon MB. Is there a benefit to the treatment of mild gestational diabetes mellitus?. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 2010;202(6):649‐53. - PubMed
Langer 2005
    1. Langer O, Yogev Y, Most O, Xenakis EM. Gestational diabetes: the consequences of not treating. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 2005;192(4):989‐97. - PubMed
McFarland 1998
    1. McFarland MB, Trylovich CG, Langer O. Anthropometric differences in macrosomic infants of diabetic and nondiabetic mothers. Journal of Maternal‐Fetal Medicine 1998;7(6):292‐5. - PubMed
Metzger 1998
    1. Metzger BE, Coustan DR. Summary and recommendations of fourth international workshop‐conference on gestational diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Care 1998;21(Suppl 2):B161‐B167. - PubMed
Metzger 2007
    1. Metzger BE, Buchanan TA, Coustan DR, Leiva A, Dunger DB, Hadden DR, et al. Summary and recommendations of the Fifth International Workshop‐Conference on Gestational Diabetes Mellitus. Diabetes Care 2007;30(Suppl 2):S251‐S260. - PubMed
Metzger 2008
    1. HAPO Study Cooperative Research Group, Metzger BE, Lowe LP, Dyer AR, Trimble ER, Chaovarindr U, Coustan DR, et al. Hyperglycemia and adverse pregnancy outcomes. New England Journal of Medicine 2008;358(19):1991‐2002. - PubMed
Morisset 2010
    1. Morisset AS, St‐Yves A, Veillette J, Weisnagel SJ, Tchernof A, Robitaille J. Prevention of gestational diabetes mellitus: a review of studies on weight management. Diabetes/Metabolism Research and Reviews 2010;26(1):17‐25. - PubMed
Morrison 2008
    1. Morrison JA, Friedman LA, Wang P, Glueck CJ. Metabolic syndrome in childhood predicts adult metabolic syndrome and type 2 diabetes mellitus 25 to 30 years later. Journal of Pediatrics 2008;152(2):201‐6. - PubMed
Mulla 2010
    1. Mulla WR, Henry TQ, Homko CJ. Gestational diabetes screening after HAPO: has anything changed?. Current Diabetes Reports 2010;10(3):224‐8. - PubMed
NICE 2008
    1. National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (NICE). Diabetes in pregnancy: management of diabetes and its complications from pre‐conception to the postnatal period. NICE clinical guideline 63. London: NICE, 2008.
Ornoy 2005
    1. Ornoy A. Growth and neurodevelopmental outcome of children born to mothers with pregestational and gestational diabetes. Pediatric Endocrinology Reviews 2005;3(2):104‐13. - PubMed
Petitt 1985
    1. Petitt DJ, Bennett PH, Knowler WC, Baird HR, Aleck KA. Gestational diabetes mellitus and impaired glucose tolerance during pregnancy. Long‐term effects on obesity and glucose tolerance in the offspring. Diabetes 1985;34(Suppl 2):119‐22. - PubMed
Petry 2010
    1. Petry CJ. Gestational diabetes: risk factors and recent advances in its genetics and treatment. British Journal of Nutrition 2010;104(6):775‐87. - PubMed
Pettitt 1983
    1. Pettitt DJ, Baird HR, Aleck KA, Bennett PH, Knowler WC. Excessive obesity in offspring of Pima Indian women with diabetes during pregnancy. New England Journal of Medicine 1983;308(5):242‐5. - PubMed
Ragnarsdottir 2010
    1. Ragnarsdottir LH, Conroy S. Development of macrosomia resulting from gestational diabetes mellitus: physiology and social determinants of health. Advances in Neonatal Care 2010;10(1):7‐12. - PubMed
Reece 2009
    1. Reece EA, Leguizamón G, Wiznitzer A. Gestational diabetes: the need for a common ground. Lancet 2009;373(9677):1789‐97. - PubMed
RevMan 2011 [Computer program]
    1. The Nordic Cochrane Centre, The Cochrane Collaboration. Review Manager (RevMan). Version 5.1. Copenhagen: The Nordic Cochrane Centre, The Cochrane Collaboration, 2011.
Rizzo 1997
    1. Rizzo TA, Metzger BE, Dooley SL, Cho NH. Early malnutrition and child neurobehavioral development: insights from the study of children of diabetic mothers. Child Development 1997;68(1):26‐38. - PubMed
Rumbold 2006
    1. Rumbold AR, Crowther CA, Haslam RR, Dekker GA, Robinson JS, ACTS Study Group. Vitamins C and E and the risks of preeclampsia and perinatal complications. New England Journal of Medicine 2006;354(17):1796‐806. - PubMed
Sacks 2009
    1. Sacks DA. Gestational diabetes ‐ whom do we treat?. New England Journal of Medicine 2009;361(14):1396‐8. - PubMed
Sermer 1998
    1. Sermer M, Naylor CD, Farine D, Kenshole AB, Ritchie JW, Gare DJ, et al. The Toronto Tri‐Hospital Gestational Diabetes Project: a preliminary review. Diabetes Care 1998;21(Suppl 2):B33‐B42. - PubMed
Silva 2010
    1. Silva JC, Pacheco C, Bizato J, Souza BV, Ribeiro TE, Bertini AM. Metformin compared with glyburide for the management of gestational diabetes. International Journal of Gynecology & Obstetrics 2010;111(1):37‐40. - PubMed
Silverman 1995
    1. Silverman BL, Metzger BE, Cho NH, Loeb CA. Impaired glucose tolerance in adolescent offspring of diabetic mothers. Relationship to fetal hyperinsulinism. Diabetes Care 1995;18(5):611‐7. - PubMed
Simmons 2004
    1. Simmons D, Walters BN, Rowan JA, McIntyre HD. Metformin therapy and diabetes in pregnancy. Medical Journal of Australia 2004;180(9):462‐4. - PubMed
Slining 2010
    1. Slining M, Adair LS, Goldman BD, Borja JB, Bentley M. Infant overweight is associated with delayed motor development. Journal of Pediatrics 2010;157(1):20‐5. - PMC - PubMed
Soler 1978
    1. Soler NG, Soler SM, Malins JM. Neonatal morbidity among infants of diabetic mothers. Diabetes Care 1978;1(6):340‐50. - PubMed
Solomon 1997
    1. Solomon CG, Willett WC, Carey VJ, Rich‐Edwards J, Hunter DJ, Colditz GA, et al. A prospective study of pregravid determinants of gestational diabetes mellitus. JAMA 1997;278(13):1078‐83. - PubMed
Stamilio 2004
    1. Stamilio DM, Olsen T, Ratcliffe S, Sehdev HM, Macones GA. False‐positive 1‐hour glucose challenge test and adverse perinatal outcomes. Obstetrics & Gynecology 2004;103(1):148‐56. - PubMed
Vohr 1997
    1. Vohr BR, McGarvey ST. Growth patterns of large‐for‐gestational‐age and appropriate‐for‐gestational‐age infants of gestational diabetic mothers and control mothers at age 1 year. Diabetes Care 1997;20(7):1066‐72. - PubMed
Vohr 1999
    1. Vohr BR, McGarvey ST, Tucker R. Effects of maternal gestational diabetes on offspring adiposity at 4‐7 years of age. Diabetes Care 1999;22(8):1284‐91. - PubMed
Whincup 2008
    1. Whincup PH, Kaye SJ, Owen CG, Huxley R, Cook DG, Anazawa S, et al. Birth weight and risk of type 2 diabetes: a systematic review. JAMA 2008;300(24):2886‐97. - PubMed
WHO 1999
    1. World Health Organization. Definition, Diagnosis and Classification of Diabetes Mellitus and its Complications. Report of a WHO Consultation. Part 1. Geneva: WHO, 1999.
Yogev 2009
    1. Yogev Y, Visser GH. Obesity, gestational diabetes and pregnancy outcome. Seminars in Fetal and Neonatal Medicine 2009;14(2):77‐84. - PubMed
Zhang 2006
    1. Zhang C, Liu S, Solomon CG, Hu FB. Dietary fiber intake, dietary glycemic load, and the risk for gestational diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Care 2006;29(10):2223‐30. - PubMed

Publication types

MeSH terms