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Meta-Analysis
. 2012 Jun 13;2012(6):CD000259.
doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD000259.pub3.

Audit and feedback: effects on professional practice and healthcare outcomes

Noah Ivers  1 , Gro Jamtvedt, Signe Flottorp, Jane M Young, Jan Odgaard-Jensen, Simon D French, Mary Ann O'Brien, Marit Johansen, Jeremy Grimshaw, Andrew D Oxman
Affiliations
Meta-Analysis

Audit and feedback: effects on professional practice and healthcare outcomes

Noah Ivers et al. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. .

Update in

  • Audit and feedback: effects on professional practice.
    Ivers N, Yogasingam S, Lacroix M, Brown KA, Antony J, Soobiah C, Simeoni M, Willis TA, Crawshaw J, Antonopoulou V, Meyer C, Solbak NM, Murray BJ, Butler EA, Lepage S, Giltenane M, Carter MD, Fontaine G, Sykes M, Halasy M, Bazazo A, Seaton S, Canavan T, Alderson S, Reis C, Linklater S, Lalor A, Fletcher A, Gearon E, Jenkins H, Wallis JA, Grobler L, Beccaria L, Cyril S, Rozbroj T, Han JX, Xu AX, Wu K, Rouleau G, Shah M, Konnyu K, Colquhoun H, Presseau J, O'Connor D, Lorencatto F, Grimshaw JM. Ivers N, et al. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2025 Mar 25;3(3):CD000259. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD000259.pub4. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2025. PMID: 40130784

Abstract

Background: Audit and feedback is widely used as a strategy to improve professional practice either on its own or as a component of multifaceted quality improvement interventions. This is based on the belief that healthcare professionals are prompted to modify their practice when given performance feedback showing that their clinical practice is inconsistent with a desirable target. Despite its prevalence as a quality improvement strategy, there remains uncertainty regarding both the effectiveness of audit and feedback in improving healthcare practice and the characteristics of audit and feedback that lead to greater impact.

Objectives: To assess the effects of audit and feedback on the practice of healthcare professionals and patient outcomes and to examine factors that may explain variation in the effectiveness of audit and feedback.

Search methods: We searched the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL) 2010, Issue 4, part of The Cochrane Library. www.thecochranelibrary.com, including the Cochrane Effective Practice and Organisation of Care (EPOC) Group Specialised Register (searched 10 December 2010); MEDLINE, Ovid (1950 to November Week 3 2010) (searched 09 December 2010); EMBASE, Ovid (1980 to 2010 Week 48) (searched 09 December 2010); CINAHL, Ebsco (1981 to present) (searched 10 December 2010); Science Citation Index and Social Sciences Citation Index, ISI Web of Science (1975 to present) (searched 12-15 September 2011).

Selection criteria: Randomised trials of audit and feedback (defined as a summary of clinical performance over a specified period of time) that reported objectively measured health professional practice or patient outcomes. In the case of multifaceted interventions, only trials in which audit and feedback was considered the core, essential aspect of at least one intervention arm were included.

Data collection and analysis: All data were abstracted by two independent review authors. For the primary outcome(s) in each study, we calculated the median absolute risk difference (RD) (adjusted for baseline performance) of compliance with desired practice compliance for dichotomous outcomes and the median percent change relative to the control group for continuous outcomes. Across studies the median effect size was weighted by number of health professionals involved in each study. We investigated the following factors as possible explanations for the variation in the effectiveness of interventions across comparisons: format of feedback, source of feedback, frequency of feedback, instructions for improvement, direction of change required, baseline performance, profession of recipient, and risk of bias within the trial itself. We also conducted exploratory analyses to assess the role of context and the targeted clinical behaviour. Quantitative (meta-regression), visual, and qualitative analyses were undertaken to examine variation in effect size related to these factors.

Main results: We included and analysed 140 studies for this review. In the main analyses, a total of 108 comparisons from 70 studies compared any intervention in which audit and feedback was a core, essential component to usual care and evaluated effects on professional practice. After excluding studies at high risk of bias, there were 82 comparisons from 49 studies featuring dichotomous outcomes, and the weighted median adjusted RD was a 4.3% (interquartile range (IQR) 0.5% to 16%) absolute increase in healthcare professionals' compliance with desired practice. Across 26 comparisons from 21 studies with continuous outcomes, the weighted median adjusted percent change relative to control was 1.3% (IQR = 1.3% to 28.9%). For patient outcomes, the weighted median RD was -0.4% (IQR -1.3% to 1.6%) for 12 comparisons from six studies reporting dichotomous outcomes and the weighted median percentage change was 17% (IQR 1.5% to 17%) for eight comparisons from five studies reporting continuous outcomes. Multivariable meta-regression indicated that feedback may be more effective when baseline performance is low, the source is a supervisor or colleague, it is provided more than once, it is delivered in both verbal and written formats, and when it includes both explicit targets and an action plan. In addition, the effect size varied based on the clinical behaviour targeted by the intervention.

Authors' conclusions: Audit and feedback generally leads to small but potentially important improvements in professional practice. The effectiveness of audit and feedback seems to depend on baseline performance and how the feedback is provided. Future studies of audit and feedback should directly compare different ways of providing feedback.

PubMed Disclaimer

Conflict of interest statement

JMG and ADO are editors in the Cochrane Effective Practice and Organisation of Care group ‐ the peer review process for this review was undertaken independently by another editor. Authors of included trials were not involved in the assessment or data abstraction from these trials.

Figures

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1
Study flow diagram.
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2
Risk of bias graph: review authors' judgements about each risk of bias item presented as percentages across all included studies.
3
3
Bubble plot: adjusted risk difference by baseline performance
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4
Box plot: comparing adjusted risk difference by format of feedback
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5
Box plot: comparing adjusted risk difference by format of feedback
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Box plot: comparing adjusted risk difference by source of feedback
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Box plot: comparing adjusted risk difference by frequency of feedback
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Box plot: comparing adjusted risk difference by presence/extent of instructions for improvement in feedback
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Box plot: comparing adjusted risk difference by direction of change required by the feedback
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10
Box plot: comparing adjusted risk difference for Comparison B (audit and feedback alone versus usual care) and Comparison C (multifaceted intervention featuring audit and feedback versus usual care)
See this image and copyright information in PMC

Update of

Comment in

References

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Naughton 2007 {published data only}
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Naughton 2009 {published data only}
    1. Naughton C, Feely J, Bennett K. A RCT evaluating the effectiveness and cost‐effectiveness of academic detailing versus postal prescribing feedback in changing GP antibiotic prescribing. Journal of Evaluation in Clinical Practice 2009;15(5):807‐12. - PubMed
Nilsson 2001 {published data only}
    1. Nilsson G, Hjemdal P, Hassler A, Vitols S, Wallen NH, Krakau I. Feedback on prescribing rate combined with problem‐oriented pharmacotherapy education as a model to improve prescribing among general practitioners. European Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 2001;56(11):843‐8. - PubMed
Norton 1985 {published data only}
    1. Norton PG, Dempsey LJ. Self‐audit: its effect on quality of care. Journal of Family Practice 1985;21:289‐91. - PubMed
O'Connell 1999 {published data only}
    1. O´Connell DL, Henry D, Tomlins R. Randomised controlled trial of effect of feedback on general practitioners prescribing in Australia. BMJ 1999;318:507‐11. - PMC - PubMed
O'Connor 2009 {published data only}
    1. O'Connor PJ, Sperl‐Hillen J, Johnson PE, Rush WA, Crain AL. Customized feedback to patients and providers failed to improve safety or quality of diabetes care: a randomized trial. Diabetes Care 2009;32(7):1158‐63. - PMC - PubMed
Ornstein 2004 {published data only}
    1. Ornstein S, Jenkins RG, Nietert PJ, Feifer C, Roylance LF, Nemeth L, et al. A multimethod quality improvement intervention to improve preventive cardiovascular care: a cluster randomized trial. Annals of Internal Practice 2004;141(7):523‐32. - PubMed
Palmer 1985 {published data only}
    1. Palmer RH, Louis TA, Hsu LN, Peterson HF, Rothrock JK, Strain R, et al. A randomized controlled trial of quality assurance in sixteen ambulatory care practices. Medical Care 1985;23:751‐70. - PubMed
Phillips 2005 {published data only}
    1. Phillips LS, Ziemer DC, Doyle JP, Barnes CS, Kolm P, Branch WT, et al. An endocrinologist‐supported intervention aimed at providers improves diabetes management in a primary care site: improving primary care of African Americans with diabetes (IPCAAD) 7. Diabetes Care 2005;28:2352‐60. - PubMed
Pimlott 2003 {published data only}
    1. Pimlott NJG, Hux JE, Wilson LM, Kahan M, Li C, Rosser WW. Educating physicians to reduce benzodiazepine use by elderly patients: a randomized controlled trial. Canadian Medical Association Journal 2003;168:835‐9. - PMC - PubMed
Quinley 2004 {published data only}
    1. Quinley JC, Shih A. Improving physician coverage of pneumcoccal vaccine: a randomized trial of telephone intervention. Journal of Community Health 2004;29:103‐15. - PubMed
Raasch 2000 {published data only}
    1. Raasch BA, Hays R, Buettner PG. An educational intervention to improve diagnosis and management of suspicious skin lesions. The Journal of Continuing Education in the Health Professions 2000;20:39‐51. - PubMed
Rantz 2001 {published data only}
    1. Rantz MJ, Popejoy L, Petroski GF, Madsen RW, Mehr DR, Zwygart‐Stauffacher M, et al. Randomized clinical trial of quality improvement intervention in nursing homes. The Gerontologist 2001;41(4):525‐38. - PubMed
Rask 2001 {published data only}
    1. Rask K, Kohler SA, Wells KJ, Williams JA, Diamond CC. Performance improvement interventions to improve delivery of screening services in diabetes care. Journal of Clinical Outcomes Management 2001;8:23‐9.
Robling 2002 {published data only}
    1. Robling MR, Houston HL, Kinnersley P, Hourihan MD, Cohen DR, Hale J, et al. General practitioners' use of magnetic resonance imaging: an open randomized trial comparing telephone and written requests and an open randomized controlled trial of different methods of local guideline dissemination. Clinical Radiology 2002;57(5):402‐7. - PubMed
Ruangkanchanasetr 1993 {published data only}
    1. Ruangkanchanastr S. Laboratory investigation utilization in pediatric out‐patient department ramathibodi hospital. Journal of the Medical Association of Thailand 1993;76:194‐9. - PubMed
Rubin 2001 {published data only}
    1. Rubin GL, Schofield WN, Dean MG, Shakeshaft AP. Appropriateness of red blood cell transfusions in major urban hospitals and effectiveness of an intervention. The Medical Journal of Australia 2001;175:354‐8. - PubMed
Rust 1999 {published data only}
    1. Rust CT, Sisk FA, Kuo AR, Smith J, Miller R, Sullivan KM. Impact of resident feedback on immunization outcomes. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine 1999;153:1165‐9. - PubMed
Sandbaek 1999 {published data only}
    1. Sandbaek A, Kragstrup J. Randomized controlled trial of the effect of medical audit on aids prevention in general practice. Family Practice 1999;16:510‐4. - PubMed
Sauaia 2000 {published data only}
    1. Sauaia A, Ralston D, Schluter WW, Marciniak TA, Havranek EP, Dunn TR. Influencing care in acute myocardial infarction: a randomized trial comparing 2 types of intervention. American Journal of Medical Quality 2000;15:197‐206. - PubMed
Schectman 1995 {published data only}
    1. Schectman JM, Kanwal NK, Schroth WS, Elinsky EG. The effect of an education and feedback intervention on group‐model and network‐model health maintenance organization physician prescribing behavior. Medical Care 1995;33:139‐44. - PubMed
Schectman 2003 {published data only}
    1. Schectman JM, Schroth WS, Verme D, Voss JD. Randomized controlled trial of education and feedback for implementation of guidelines for acute low back pain. Journal of General Internal Medicine 2003;18:773‐80. - PMC - PubMed
Schneider 2008 {published data only}
    1. Schneider A, Wensing M, Biessecker K, Quinzler R, Kaufmann‐Kolle P, Szecsenyi J. Impact of quality circles for improvement of asthma care: results of a randomized controlled trial. Journal of Evaluation in Clinical Practice 2008;14(2):185‐90. - PMC - PubMed
Scholes 2006 {published data only}
    1. Scholes D, Grothaus L, McClure J, Reid R, Fishman P, Sisk C, et al. A randomized trial of strategies to increase chlamydia screening in young women. Preventive Medicine 2006;43(4):343‐50. - PubMed
Sinclair 1982 {published data only}
    1. Sinclair C, Frankel M. The effect of quality assurance activities on the quality of mental health services. Quality Review Bulletin 1982;8(7):7‐15. - PubMed
Siriwardena 2002 {published data only}
    1. Siriwardena AN, Rashid A, Johnson MRD, Dewey ME. Cluster randomised controlled trial of an educational outreach visit to improve influenza and pneumococcal immunisation rates in primary care. The British Journal of General Practice 2002;52:735‐40. - PMC - PubMed
Smith 1998 {published data only}
    1. Smith DK, Shaw RW, Slack J, Marteau TM. Training obstetricians and midwives to present screening tests evaluation of two brief interventions. Prenatal Diagnosis 1995;15:317‐24. - PubMed
Socolar 1998 {published data only}
    1. Socolar RR, Raines B, Chen‐Mok M, Runyan DK, Green C, Paterno S. Intervention to improve physician documentation and knowledge of child sexual abuse: a randomized, controlled trial. Pediatrics 1998;101(5):817‐24. - PubMed
Solomon 2004 {published data only}
    1. Solomon DH, Katz JN, Tourette AM, Coblyn JS. Multifaceted intervention to improve rheumatologists' management of glucocorticoid‐induced osteoporosis: a randomized controlled trial. Arthritis and Rheumatism 2004;51(3):383‐7. - PubMed
Sommers 1984 {published data only}
    1. Sommers LS, Sholtz R, Shepherd RM, Starkweather DB. Physician involvement in quality assurance. Medical Care 1984;22:1115‐38. - PubMed
Soumerai 1998 {published data only}
    1. Soumerai SB, McLaughlin TJ, Gurwitz JH, Guadagnoli E, Hauptman PJ, Borbas C, et al. Effect of local medical opinion leaders on quality of care for acute myocardial infarction: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 1998;279(17):1358‐63. - PubMed
Svetkey 2009 {published data only}
    1. Svetkey LP, Pollak KI, Yancy WS Jr, Dolor RJ, Batch BC, Samsa G, et al. Hypertension improvement project: randomized trial of quality improvement for physicians and lifestyle modification for patients. Hypertension 2009;54(6):1226‐33. - PMC - PubMed
Søndergaard 2002 {published data only}
    1. Søndergaard J, Adersen M, Vach K, Kragstrup J, Maclure M, Gram LF. Detailed postal feedback about prescribing to asthma patients combined with a guideline statement showed no impact: a randomised controlled trial. European Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 2002;58:127‐32. - PubMed
Søndergaard 2003 {published data only}
    1. Søndergaard J, Andersen M, Støvring H, Kragstrup J. Mailed prescribed feedback in addition to a clinical guideline has no impact: a randomised, controlled trial. Scandinavian Journal of Primary Health Care 2003;21:47‐51. - PubMed
Søndergaard 2006 {published data only}
    1. Søndergaard J, Hansen DG, Aarslev P, Munck AP. A multifaceted intervention according to the Audit Project Odense method improved secondary prevention of ischemic heart disease: a randomised controlled trial. Family Practice 2006;23(2):198‐202. - PubMed
Thomas 2006 {published data only}
    1. Thomas RE, Croal BL, Ramsay C, Eccles M, Grimshaw J. Effect of enhanced feedback and brief educational reminder messages on laboratory test requesting in primary care: a cluster randomised trial. Lancet 2006;367:1990‐6. - PubMed
Thomas 2007 {published data only}
    1. Thomas KG, Thomas MR, Stroebel RJ, McDonald FS, Hanson GJ, Naessens JM, et al. Use of a registry‐generated audit, feedback, and patient reminder intervention in an internal medicine resident clinic‐‐a randomized trial. Journal of General Internal Medicine 2007;22:1740‐4. - PMC - PubMed
Tierney 1986 {published data only}
    1. Tierney WM, Hui SL, McDonald CJ. Delayed feedback of physician performance versus immediate reminders to perform preventive care. Effects on physician compliance. Medical Care 1986;24(8):659‐66. - PubMed
Tu 2009 {published data only}
    1. Tu JV, Donovan LR, Lee DS, Wang JT, Austin PC, Alter DA, et al. Effectiveness of public report cards for improving the quality of cardiac care: the EFFECT study: a randomized trial. JAMA 2009;302(21):2330‐7. - PubMed
Van den Hombergh 1999 {published data only}
    1. Hombergh P, Grol R, Hoogen HJM, Bosch WJHM. Practice visits as a tool in quality improvement: mutual visits and feedback by peers compared with visits and feedback by non‐physician observers. Quality in Health Care 1999;8:161‐6. - PMC - PubMed
Van der Weijden 1999 {published data only}
    1. Weijden T, Grol RP, Knottinerus JA. Feasibility of a national cholestrol guideline in daily practice. A randomized controlled trial in 20 general practices. International Journal for Quality in Health Care 1999;11(2):131‐7. - PubMed
Veninga 1999 {published data only}
    1. Lundborg CS, Wahlström, Oke T, Tomson G, Diwan V. Influencing prescribing for urinary tract infection and asthma in primary care in Sweden: a randomized controlled trial of an interactive educational intervention. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology 1999;52(8):801‐12. - PubMed
    1. Veninga CCM, Denig P, Zwaagstra R, Haaijer‐Ruskamp FM. Improving drug treatment in general practice. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology 2000;53:762‐72. - PubMed
    1. Veninga CCM, Lagerløv P, Wahlstöm R, Muskova M, Denig P, Berkhof J, et al. Evaluating an educational intervention to improve the treatment of asthma in four European countries. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine 1999;160:1254‐62. - PubMed
    1. Veninga N. Improving prescribing in general practice. Thesis, Rijksuiversiteit Groningen 2000.
Verstappen 2003 {published data only}
    1. Verstappen WHJM, Weijden T, Sijbrandij J, Smeele J, Hermsen J, Grimshaw J, et al. Effect of a practice‐based strategy on test ordering performance of primary care physicians. JAMA 2003;289:2407‐12. - PubMed
Verstappen 2004 {published data only}
    1. Verstappen WHJM, Weijden T, Dubois WI, Smeele I, Hermsen J, Tan FES, et al. Improving test ordering in primary care: the added value of a small‐group quality improvement strategy compared with classic feedback only. Annals of Family Medicine 2004;2:569‐75. - PMC - PubMed
Vingerhoets 2001 {published data only}
    1. Vingerhoets B, Wensing M, Grol R. Feedback of patients' evaluations of general practice care: a randomised trial. Quality in Health Care 2001;10:224‐8. - PMC - PubMed
Wadland 2007 {published data only}
    1. Wadland WC, Holtrop JS, Weismantel D, Pathak PK, Fadel H, Powell J. Practice‐based referrals to a tobacco cessation quit line: assessing the impact of comparative feedback vs general reminders. Annals of Family Medicine 2007;5(2):135‐42. - PMC - PubMed
Wahlström 2003 {published data only}
    1. Wahlström R, Kounnavong S, Sisounthone B, Phanyanouvong A, Southammavong T, Eriksson B, et al. Effectiveness of feedback for improving case management of malaria, diarrhoea and pneumonia ‐ a randomized controlled trial at provincial hospitals in Lao PDR. Tropical Medicine and International Health 2003;8:901‐9. - PubMed
Ward 1996 {published data only}
    1. Ward A, Kamien M, Mansfield F, Fatovich B. Educational feedback in management of diabetes in general practice. Education for General Practice 1996;7:142‐50.
Weitzman 2009 {published data only}
    1. Weitzman S, Greenfield S, Billimek J, Hava T, Schvartzman P, Yehiel E, et al. Improving combined diabetes outcomes by adding a simple patient intervention to physician feedback: a cluster randomized trial. Israeli Medical Association Journal 2009;11:719‐24. - PubMed
Winickoff 1984 {published data only}
    1. Winickoff RN, Coltin KL, Morgan MM, Buxbaum RC, Barnett GO. Improving physician performance through peer comparison feedback. Medical Care 1984;22:527‐34. - PubMed
Winkens 1995 {published data only}
    1. Winkens RA, Pop P, Bugter‐Maessen AM, Grol RP, Kester AD, Beusmands GH, et al. Randomised controlled trial of routine individual feedback to improve rationality and reduce numbers of test requests. Lancet 1995;345:498‐502. - PubMed
Wones 1987 {published data only}
    1. Wones RG. Failure of low‐cost audits with feedback to reduce laboratory test utilization. Medical Care 1987;25:78‐82. - PubMed
Ziemer 2006 {published data only}
    1. Ziemer DC, Doyle JP, Barnes CS, Branch WTJ, Cook CB, Kebbi IM, et al. An intervention to overcome clinical inertia and improve diabetes mellitus control in a primary care setting: Improving Primary Care of African Americans with Diabetes (IPCAAD) 8. Archives of Internal Medicine 2006;166:507‐13. - PubMed
Zwar 1999 {published data only}
    1. Zwar N, Wolk J, Gordon J, Fisher RS, Kehoe L. Influencing antibiotic prescribing in general practice: a trial of prescriber feedback and management guidelines. Family Practice 1999;16(5):495‐500. - PubMed

References to studies excluded from this review

Aittasalo 2006 {published data only}
    1. Aittasalo M, Miilunpalo S, Kukkonen‐Harjula K, Pasanen M. A randomized intervention of physical activity promotion and patient self‐monitoring in primary health care. Preventive Medicine 2006;42:40‐6. - PubMed
Allard 2001 {published data only}
    1. Allard J, Hébert R, Rioux M, Asselin J, Voyer L. Efficacy of a clinical medication review on the number of potentially inappropriate prescriptions prescribed for community‐dwelling elderly people. Canadian Medical Association Journal 2001;164:1291‐6. - PMC - PubMed
Allison 2005 {published data only}
    1. Allison JJ, Kiefe CI, Wall T, Casebeer L, Ray MN, Spettell CM, et al. Multicomponent Internet continuing medical education to promote chlamydia screening.. American Journal of Preventive Medicine 2005;28:285‐90. - PubMed
Althabe 2008 {published data only}
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Anderson 1996 {published data only}
    1. Anderson JF, McEwan KL, Hrudey WP. Effectiveness of notification and group education in modifying prescribing of regulated analgesics. Canadian Medical Association Journal 1996;154:31‐9. - PMC - PubMed
Anonymous I 1990 {published data only}
    1. Anonymous. North of England study of standards and performence in general practice. University of Newcastle, report nr 40 and report nr 50.
Aspy 2008 {published data only}
    1. Aspy CB, Enright M, Halstead L, Mold JW, Oklahoma Physicians Resource/Research Network. Improving mammography screening using best practices and practice enhancement assistants: an Oklahoma Physicians Resource/Research Network (OKPRN) study. Journal of the American Board of Family Medicine: JABFM 2008;21(4):326‐33. - PubMed
Ballard 2002 {published data only}
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Belcher 1990 {published data only}
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Bertoni 2009 {published data only}
    1. Bertoni AG, Bonds DE, Chen H, Hogan P, Crago L, Rosenberger E, et al. Impact of a multifaceted intervention on cholesterol management in primary care practices: guideline adherence for heart health randomized trial. Archives of Internal Medicine 2009;169(7):678‐86. - PMC - PubMed
Berwick 1986 {published data only}
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Billi 1987 {published data only}
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Bindels 2003 {published data only}
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Bischoff 2000 {published data only}
    1. Bischoff WE, Reynolds TM, Sessler CN, Edmond MB, Wenzel RP. Handwashing compliance by health care workers: The impact of introducing an accessible, alcohol‐based hand antiseptic. Archives of Internal Medicine 2000;160:1017‐21. - PubMed
Bonds 2009 {published data only}
    1. Bonds DE, Hogan PE, Bertoni AG, Chen H, Clinch CR, Hiott AE, et al. A multifaceted intervention to improve blood pressure control: The Guideline Adherence for Heart Health (GLAD) study. American Heart Journal 2009;157(2):278‐84. - PMC - PubMed
Bonetti 2005 {published data only}
    1. Bonetti D, Eccles M, Johnston M, Steen N, Grimshaw J, Baker R, et al. Guiding the design and selection of interventions to influence the implementation of evidence‐based practice: an experimental simulation of a complex intervention trial. Social Science & Medicine 2005;60:2135‐47. - PubMed
Brand 2005 {published data only}
    1. Brand S, Härter M, Sitta P, Calker D, Menke R, Heindl A, et al. Data supporting quality circle management of inpatient depression treatment. Nervenarzt 2005;76:865‐6. - PubMed
Britton 1991 {published data only}
    1. Britton ML, Lurvey PL. Impact of medication profile review on prescribing in a general medicine clinic. American Journal of Hospital Pharmacy 1991;48:265‐70. - PubMed
Brown 1988 {published data only}
    1. Brown RL. Evaluation of a continuing medical education program for primary care physcicians on the management of alcoholism. Journal of Medical Education 1988;63:482‐4. - PubMed
Buekens 1993 {published data only}
    1. Buekens P, Boutsen M, Kittel F, Vandenbussche P, Dramaix M. Does awareness of rates of obstetric interventions change practice?. BMJ 1993;306:623. - PMC - PubMed
Bunting 2004 {published data only}
    1. Bunting PS, Walraven C. Effect of a controlled feedback intervention on laboratory test ordering by community physicians. Clinical Chemistry 2004;50:321‐6. - PubMed
Campbell 2006 {published data only}
    1. Campbell E, Walsh RA, Sanson‐Fisher R, Burrows S, Stojanovski E. A group randomised trial of two methods for disseminating a smoking cessation programme to public antenatal clinics: effects on patient outcomes. Tobacco Control 2006;15(2):97‐102. - PMC - PubMed
Carney 1992 {published data only}
    1. Carney PA, Dietrich AJ, Keller A, Landgraf J, O'Connor GT. Tools, teamwork and tenacity: An office system for cancer prevention. The Journal of Family Practice 1992;35:388‐94. - PubMed
Chin 2007 {published data only}
    1. Chin MH, Drum ML, Guillen M, Rimington A, Levie JR, Kirchhoff AC, et al. Improving and sustaining diabetes care in community health centers with the health disparities collaboratives. Medical Care 2007;45:1135‐43. - PubMed
Chowdhury 2007 {published data only}
    1. Chowdhury AKA, Khan OF, Matin MA, Begum K, Galib MA. Effect of standard treatment guidelines with or without prescription audit on prescribing for acute respiratory tract infection (ARI) and diarrhoea in some thana health complexes (THCs) of Bangladesh. Bangladesh Medical Research Council Bulletin 2007;33:21‐30. - PubMed
Cleveringa 2008 {published data only}
    1. Cleveringa FGW, Gorter KJ, Donk MD, Rutten GEHM. Combined task delegation, computerized decision support, and feedback improve cardiovascular risk for type 2 diabetic patients. Diabetes Care 2008;31(12):2273‐5. - PMC - PubMed
Cohen 1996 {published data only}
    1. Cohen MM, Rose DK, Yee DA. Changing anesthesiologists' practice patterns. Can it be done?. Anesthesiology 1996;85:260‐9. - PubMed
Colón‐Emeric 2007 {published data only}
    1. Colón‐Emeric CS, Lyles KW, House P, Levine DA, Schenck AP, Allison J, et al. Randomized trial to improve fracture prevention in nursing home residents. The American Journal of Medicine 2007;120(10):886‐92. - PMC - PubMed
Cope 1986 {published data only}
    1. Cope DW, Linn LS, Leake BD, Barrett PA. Modification of residents' behavior by preceptor feedback of patient satisfaction. Journal of General Internal Medicine 1986;1:394‐8. - PubMed
Cranney 1999 {published data only}
    1. Cranney M, Barton S, Walley T. Addressing barriers to change: an RCT of practice‐based education to improve the management of hypertension in the elderly. The British Journal of General Practice 1999;49:522‐6. - PMC - PubMed
Crits‐Christoph 2010 {published data only}
    1. Crits‐Christoph P, Ring‐Kurtz S, McClure B, Temes C, Kulaga A, Gallop R, et al. A randomized controlled study of a web‐based performance improvement system for substance abuse treatment providers. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment 2010;38:251‐62. - PMC - PubMed
Crotty 2004 {published data only}
    1. Crotty M, Whitehead C, Rowett D, Halbert J, Weller D, Finucane P, et al. An outreach intervention to implement evidence based practice in residential care: a randomized controlled trial. BMC Health Services Research 2004;4:6. - PMC - PubMed
Curtis 2009 {published data only}
    1. Curtis JR, Nielsen E, Treece P, Downey L, Dotolo D, Shannon S, et al. Critical Care Medicine. 2009; Conference:A388.
Del Mar 1998 {published data only}
    1. Mar CB, Lowe JB, Adkins P, Arnold E, Baade P. Improving general practitioner clinical records with a quality assurance minimal intervention. British Journal of General Practice 1998;48:1307‐11. - PMC - PubMed
Denton 2001 {published data only}
    1. Denton GD, Smith J, Faust J, Holmboe E. Comparing the efficacy of staff versus housestaff instruction in an intervention to improve hypertension management. Academic Medicine 2001;76:1257‐60. - PubMed
De Silva 1994 {published data only}
    1. Silva M, Abrahanson G. Does medical audit change practice?. Transfusion Science 1994;15:277.
Dickinson 1981 {published data only}
    1. Dickinson JC, Warshaw GA, Gehlbach SH, Bobula JA, Muhlbaier LH, Parkerson GR Jr. Improving hypertension control: impact of computer feedback and physician education. Medical Care 1981;19:843‐54. - PubMed
Doherty 2006 {published data only}
    1. Doherty SR, Jones PD. Use of an 'evidence‐based implementation' strategy to implement evidence‐based care of asthma into rural district hospital emergency departments. Rural and Remote Health 2006;6:529. - PubMed
Doherty 2007 {published data only}
    1. Doherty SR, Jones PD, Davis L, Ryan NJV, Treeve V. Evidence‐based implementation of adult asthma guidelines in the emergency department: a controlled trial. Emergency Medicine Australasia 2007;19(1):31‐8. - PubMed
Dranitsaris 1995 {published data only}
    1. Dranitsaris G, Warr D, Puodziunas A. A randomized trial of the effects of pharmacist intervention on the cost of antiemetic therapy with ondansetron. Supportive Care in Cancer 1995;3:183‐9. - PubMed
Dulko 2010 {published data only}
    1. Dulko D, Hertz E, Julien J, Beck S, Mooney K. Implementation of cancer pain guidelines by acute care nurse practitioners using an audit and feedback strategy. Journal of the American Academy of Nurse Practitioners 2010;22:45‐55. - PubMed
Echouffo‐Tcheugui 2009 {published data only}
    1. Echouffo‐Tcheugui JB, Simmons RK, Williams KM, Barling RS, Prevost AT, Kinmonth AL, et al. The ADDITION‐Cambridge trial protocol: a cluster‐ randomised controlled trial of screening for type 2 diabetes and intensive treatment for screen‐detected patients. BMC Public Health 2009;9:136. - PMC - PubMed
Elnicki 1998 {published data only}
    1. Elnicki DM, Layne RD, Ogden PE, Morris DK. Oral versus written feedback in medical clinic. Journal of General Internal Medicine 1998;13:155‐8. - PMC - PubMed
Everett {published data only}
    1. Everett GD, deBlois CS, Chang PF, Holets T. Effect of cost education, cost audits, and faculty chart review on the use of laboratory services. Archives of Internal Medicine 1983;143:942‐4. - PubMed
Fallowfield 2002 {published data only}
    1. Fallowfield L, Jenkins V, Farewell V, Saul J, Duffy A, Eves R. Efficacy of a Cancer Research UK communication skills training model for oncologists: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2002;359(9307):650‐6. - PubMed
Feder 1995 {published data only}
    1. Feder G, Griffiths C, Highton C, Eldridge S, Spence M, Southgate L. Do clinical guidelines intorduced with practice based education improve care of asthmatic and dibetic patients? A randomised controlled trial in general practices in east London. BMJ 1995;311:1473‐8. - PMC - PubMed
Ferreira 2005 {published data only}
    1. Ferreira MR, Dolan NC, Fitzgibbon ML, Davis TC, Gorby N, Ladewski L, et al. Health care provider‐directed intervention to increase colorectal cancer screening among veterans: Results of a randomized controlled trial. Journal of Clinical Oncology 2005;23(7):1548‐54. - PubMed
Fick 2004 {published data only}
    1. Fick DM, Maclean JR, Rodriguez NA, Short L, Heuvel RV, Waller JL, et al. A randomized study to decrease the use of potentially inappropriate medications among community‐dwelling older adults in a southeastern managed care organization. American Journal of Managed Care 2004;10:761‐8. - PubMed
Fihn 2004 {published data only}
    1. Fihn DS, McDonell MB, Diehr P, Anderson SM, Bradley KA, Au DH, et al. Effects of sustained audit/feedback on self‐reported health status of primary care patients. The American Journal of Medicine 2004;116:241‐8. - PubMed
Finkelstein 2001 {published data only}
    1. Finkelstein JA, Davis RL, Dowell SF, Metlay JP, Soumerai SB, Rifas‐Shiman SL, et al. Reducing antibiotic use in children: a randomized trial in 12 practices. Pediatrics 2001;108(1):1‐7. - PubMed
Finkelstein 2005 {published data only}
    1. Finkelstein JA, Lozano P, Fuhlbrigge AL, Carey VJ, Inui TS, Soumerai SB, et al. Practice‐level effects of interventions to improve asthma care in primary care settings: The pediatric asthma care patient outcomes research team. Health Services Research 2005;40:1737‐57. - PMC - PubMed
Finkelstein 2008 {published data only}
    1. Finkelstein JA, Huang SS, Kleinman K, Rifas‐Shiman SL, Stille CJ, Daniel J, et al. Impact of a 16‐community trial to promote judicious antibiotic use in Massachusetts. Pediatrics 2008;121(1):e15‐23. - PubMed
Frame 1994 {published data only}
    1. Frame PS, Zimmer JG, Werth PL, Hall WJ, Eberly SW. Computer‐based vs manual health maintenance tracking. A controlled trial. Archives of Family Medicine 1994;3:581‐8. - PubMed
Freeborn 1997 {published data only}
    1. Freeborn DK, Shye D, Mullooly JP, Eraker S, Romeo J. Primary care physicians' use of lumbar spine imaging tests: effects of guidelines and practice pattern feedback. Journal of General Internal Medicine 1997;12:619‐25. - PMC - PubMed
Fretheim 2006 {published data only}
    1. Fretheim A, Oxman AD, Håvelsrud K, Treweek S, Kristoffersen DT, Bjørndal A. Rational prescribing in primary care (RaPP): a cluster randomized trial of a tailored intervention. PLoS Medicine 2006;3(6):e134. - PMC - PubMed
Furniss 2000 {published data only}
    1. Furniss L, Burns A, Craig SKL, Scobie S, Cooke J, Farafher B. Effects of a pharmacists medication review in nursing homes. British Journal of Psychiatry 2000;176:563‐7. - PubMed
Ganz 2005 {published data only}
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Garrouste‐Orgeas 2010 {published data only}
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The SUPPORT 1995 {published data only}
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Velikova 2004 {published data only}
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Walsh 2007 {published data only}
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Welschen 2004 {published data only}
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References to studies awaiting assessment

Bond 2011 {published data only}
    1. Bond TC, Patel PR, Krisher J, Sauls L, Deane J, Strott K, et al. A Group‐Randomized Evaluation of a Quality Improvement Intervention to Improve Influenza Vaccination Rates in Dialysis Centers. American Journal of Kidney Diseases 2011;57:283‐90. - PubMed
Daley 2011 {published data only}
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Guldberg 2011 {published data only}
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Ivers 2010 {published data only}
    1. Ivers NM, Tu K, Francis J, Barnsley J, Shah B, Upshur R, et al. Feedback GAP: study protocol for a cluster‐randomized trial of goal setting and action plans to increase the effectiveness of audit and feedback interventions in primary care. Implementation Science 2010;5:98. - PMC - PubMed
LaPointe 2006 {published data only}
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Lopez‐Picazo 2011 {published data only}
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Mourad 2011 {published data only}
    1. Mourad SM, Hermens RPMG, Liefers J, Akkermans RP, Zielhuis GA, Adang E, et al. A multi‐faceted strategy to improve the use of national fertility guidelines; a cluster‐randomized controlled trial. Human Reproduction 2011;26:817‐26. - PubMed
Palmer 1996 {published data only}
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Sequist 2010 {published data only}
    1. Sequist TD, Fitzmaurice GM, Marshall R, Shaykevich S, Marston A, Safran DG, et al. Cultural competency training and performance reports to improve diabetes care for black patients: a cluster randomized, controlled trial.. Annals of Internal Medicine 2010;152(1):40‐6. - PubMed
Smeets 2010 {published data only}
    1. Smeets HM, Wit NJ, Zuithoff NPA, Dijk PCM, Lee APM, Hoes AW. A health insurance company‐initiated multifaceted intervention for optimizing acid‐suppressing drug prescriptions in primary care: a randomized controlled trial. Archives of Internal Medicine 2010;170:1264‐70. - PubMed
Williams 2011 {published data only}
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References to other published versions of this review

Jamtvedt 2003
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Jamtvedt 2006
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Thomson OBrien 1997b
    1. Thomson O'Brien MA, Oxman AD, Davis DA, Haynes RB, Freemantle N, Harvey EL. Audit and feedback: effects on professional practice and health care outcomes. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2003, Issue 1. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD000259.pub2] - DOI - PubMed

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