Skip to main page content
U.S. flag

An official website of the United States government

Dot gov

The .gov means it’s official.
Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

Https

The site is secure.
The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

Access keys NCBI Homepage MyNCBI Homepage Main Content Main Navigation
Meta-Analysis
. 2012 Aug 15;2012(8):CD009325.
doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD009325.pub2.

Interventions for tobacco use prevention in Indigenous youth

Kristin V Carson  1 , Malcolm P Brinn, Nadina A Labiszewski, Matthew Peters, Anne B Chang, Antony Veale, Adrian J Esterman, Brian J Smith
Affiliations
Meta-Analysis

Interventions for tobacco use prevention in Indigenous youth

Kristin V Carson et al. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. .

Retraction in

  • Interventions for tobacco use prevention in Indigenous youth.
    Carson-Chahhoud KV, Brinn MP, Labiszewski NA, Peters M, Chang AB, Veale A, Esterman AJ, Smith BJ. Carson-Chahhoud KV, et al. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2021 Nov 30;11(11):CD009325. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD009325.pub3. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2021. PMID: 34847239 Free PMC article.

Abstract

Background: Tobacco use in Indigenous populations (people who have inhabited a country for thousands of years) is often double that in the non-Indigenous population. Addiction to nicotine usually begins during early adolescence and young people who reach the age of 18 as non-smokers are unlikely to become smokers thereafter. Indigenous youth in particular commence smoking at an early age, and a disproportionate burden of substance-related morbidity and mortality exists as a result.

Objectives: To evaluate the effectiveness of intervention programmes to prevent tobacco use initiation or progression to regular smoking amongst young Indigenous populations and to summarise these approaches for future prevention programmes and research.

Search methods: The Cochrane Tobacco Addiction Group Specialised Register was searched in November 2011, with additional searches run in MEDLINE. Online clinical trial databases and publication references were also searched for potential studies.

Selection criteria: We included randomized and non-randomized controlled trials aiming to prevent tobacco use initiation or progression from experimentation to regular tobacco use in Indigenous youth. Interventions could include school-based initiatives, mass media, multi-component community level interventions, family-based programmes or public policy.

Data collection and analysis: Data pertaining to methodology, participants, interventions and outcomes were extracted by one reviewer and checked by a second, whilst information on risk of bias was extracted independently by a combination of two reviewers. Studies were assessed by qualitative narrative synthesis, as insufficient data were available to conduct a meta-analysis. The review process was examined by an Indigenous (Aboriginal) Australian for applicability, acceptability and content.

Main results: Two studies met all of the eligibility criteria for inclusion within the review and a third was identified as ongoing. The two included studies employed multi-component community-based interventions tailored to the specific cultural aspects of the population and were based in Native American populations (1505 subjects in total). No difference was observed in weekly smoking at 42 months follow-up in the one study assessing this outcome (skills-community group versus control: risk ratio [RR] 0.95, 95% CI 0.78 to 1.14; skills-only group versus control: RR 0.86, 95% CI 0.71 to 1.05). For smokeless tobacco use, no difference was found between the skills-community arm and the control group at 42 weeks (RR 0.93, 95% CI 0.67 to 1.30), though a significant difference was observed between the skills-only arm and the control group (RR 0.57, 95% CI 0.39 to 0.85). Whilst the second study found positive changes for tobacco use in the intervention arm at post test (p < 0.05), this was not maintained at six month follow-up (change score -0.11 for intervention and 0.07 for control). Both studies were rated as high or unclear risk of bias in seven or more domains (out of a total of 10).

Authors' conclusions: Based on the available evidence, a conclusion cannot be drawn as to the efficacy of tobacco prevention initiatives tailored for Indigenous youth. This review highlights the paucity of data and the need for more research in this area. Smoking prevalence in Indigenous youth is twice that of the non-Indigenous population, with tobacco experimentation commencing at an early age. As such, a significant health disparity exists where Indigenous populations, a minority, are over-represented in the burden of smoking-related morbidity and mortality. Methodologically rigorous trials are needed to investigate interventions aimed at preventing the uptake of tobacco use amongst Indigenous youth and to assist in bridging the gap between tobacco-related health disparities in Indigenous and non-Indigenous populations.

PubMed Disclaimer

Conflict of interest statement

ABC has received a grant provided by GSK which is unrelated to this topic. She is also the principal investigator on a study examining azithromycin for bronchiolitis in Indigenous children. MJP has received honoria in relation to attendance at a Smoking Cessation Advisory Board from Pfizer Ltd. No other conflicts of interest are known.

Figures

1
1
Study flow diagram.
2
2
Risk of bias summary: review authors' judgements about each risk of bias item for each included study.
1.1
1.1. Analysis
Comparison 1 Reported tobacco use, Outcome 1 Smoking ‐ Weekly at 42 months follow‐up.
1.2
1.2. Analysis
Comparison 1 Reported tobacco use, Outcome 2 Smokeless tobacco use ‐ Weekly at 42 months follow‐up.
See this image and copyright information in PMC

Similar articles

See all similar articles

Cited by

See all "Cited by" articles

References

References to studies included in this review

Gilchrist 1987 {published data only}
    1. Gilchrist LD, Schinke SP, Trimble JE, Cvetkovich GT. Skills enhancement to prevent substance abuse among American Indian adolescents. International Journal of the Addictions 1987;22(9):869‐79. - PubMed
Schinke 1994 {published and unpublished data}
    1. Moncher M, Schinke SP. Group intervention to prevent tobacco use among Native American youth. Special Issue: Empirical research on the outcomes of social work with groups. Research on Social Work Practice 1994;4(2):160‐71.
    1. Schinke SP, Moncher MS, Singer BR. Native American youths and cancer risk reduction. Effects of software intervention. Journal of Adolescent Health 1994;15(2):105‐10. - PubMed
    1. Schinke SP, Schilling RF, Gilchrist LD. Prevention of drug and alcohol abuse in American Indian youths. Social Work Research and Abstracts 1986;22(4):18‐9.
    1. Schinke SP, Singer B, Cole K, Contento IR. Reducing cancer risk among Native American adolescents. Preventive Medicine 1996;25:146‐55. - PubMed
    1. Schinke SP, Tepavac L, Cole KC. Preventing substance use among native American youth: Three‐year results. Addictive Behaviors 2000;25(3):387‐97. - PubMed

References to studies excluded from this review

Davis 1995 {published data only}
    1. Davis SM, Lambert LC, Cunningham Sabo L, Skipper BJ. Tobacco use: baseline results from pathways to health, a school‐ based project for southwestern American Indian youth. Preventive Medicine 1995;24(5):454‐60. - PubMed
Dixon 2007 {published data only}
    1. Dixon AL, Yabiku ST, Okamoto SK, Tann SS, Marsiglia FF, Kulis S, et al. The efficacy of a multicultural prevention intervention among urban American Indian youth in the southwest U.S. Journal of Primary Prevention 2007;28(6):547‐68. - PMC - PubMed
Vogeltanz‐Holm 2009 {published data only}
    1. Vogeltanz‐Holm N, Holm J E, White Plume J, Poltavski D. Confirmed recall and perceived effectiveness of tobacco countermarketing media in rural youth. Prevention Science 2009;10(4):325‐34. - PubMed

References to ongoing studies

Glover 2009 {published and unpublished data}
    1. Auckland Tobacco Control Research Centre. Keeping Kids Smokefree. http://www.keepingkidssmokefree.org.nz/results.html [accessed 26/04/2012] 2009.
    1. Charlier N, Glover M, Robertson J. Keeping Kids Smokefree: lessons learned on community participation. Health Education Research 2009;24(6):949‐56. [DOI: 10.1093/her/cyp047] - DOI - PubMed
    1. Glover M, Scragg R, Nosa V, Bullen C, McCool J, Kira A. Keeping Kids Smokefree: rationale, design, and implementation of a community, school, and family‐based intervention to modify behaviors related to smoking among Maori and Pacific Island children in New Zealand. International Quarterly of Community Health Education 2009;30(3):205‐22. - PubMed

Additional references

ABS 2006
    1. Australian Bureau of Statistics. National Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Health Survey 2004‐2005. Australian Bureau of Statistics 2006; Vol. Catalogue Number 4715.0.
ABS 2009
    1. Australian Bureau of Statistics. 4714.0 National Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Social Survey, 2008. http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/Latestproducts/4714.0Main%20Feat... [accessed 17/07/2011] 2009; Vol. 4714.0.
ABS 2011
    1. Australian Bureau of Statistics. 4704.0 The Health and Welfare of Australia's Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples, Oct 2010. http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/lookup/4707.0Chapter650Oct+2010 [accessed 12/07/2011] 2011; Vol. 4707.0.
AIHW 2002
    1. Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. 2001 National Drug Strategy Household Survey: first results; Drug Statistics Series No. 9. AIHW; Canberra 2002; Vol. Cat no. PHE35.
Alaska Department of Health 2006
    1. Alaska Department of Health and Social Services. Alaska tobacco facts June 2006. http://www.hss.state.ak.us/dph/chronic/tobacco/alaska_tobacco_facts.pdf 2006:accessed 06/07/2010.
Bandura 1998
    1. Bandura A. Health promotion from the perspective of social cognitive theory. Psychology and Health 1998;13(4):623‐49. [DOI: 10.1080/08870449808407422] - DOI
Bauman 1996
    1. Bauman KE, Ennett SE. On the importance of peer influence for adolescent drug use: commonly neglected considerations. Addiction 1996;91:185‐98. - PubMed
Berwick 2003
    1. Berwick DM. Disseminating innovations in health care. Journal of American Medical Association 2003;289:1969‐75. - PubMed
Bramley 2005
    1. Bramley D, Hebert P, Tuzzio, Chassin M. Disparities in Indigenous health: a cross‐country comparison between New Zealand and the United States. American Journal of Public Health 2005;95(5):844‐50. - PMC - PubMed
Brinn 2010
    1. Brinn MP, Carson KV, Esterman AJ, Chang AB, Smith BJ. Mass media interventions for preventing smoking in young people. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2010, Issue 11. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD001006.pub2] - DOI - PubMed
Carson 2011a
    1. Carson KV, Brinn MP, Labiszewski NA, Esterman AJ, Chang AB, Smith BJ. Community interventions for preventing smoking in young people. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2011, Issue 7. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD001291.pub2] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Carson 2011b
    1. Carson KV, Labiszewski NA, Brinn MP, Peters M, Chang AB, Veale A, et al. Interventions for tobacco use prevention in Indigenous youth. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2011, Issue 9. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD009325] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Carson 2012a
    1. Carson KV, Brinn MP, Peters M, Veale A, Esterman AJ, Smith BJ. Interventions for smoking cessation in Indigenous populations. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2012, Issue 1. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD009046.pub2] - DOI - PubMed
Carson 2012b
    1. Carson KV, Verbiest MEA, Crone MR, Brinn MP, Esterman AJ, Assendelft WJJ, et al. Training health professionals in smoking cessation. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2012, Issue 5. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD000214.pub2] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
CEITC 2005
    1. Centre for Excellence in Indigenous Tobacco Control. International Indigenous tobacco control. http://www.ceitc.org.au/international_indigenous_tobacco_control cited 06/07/2010.
Clifford 2009
    1. Clifford A, Jackson PL, Richmond R, Shakeshaft A, Ivers R. Disseminating best‐evidence health‐care to Indigenous health‐care settings and programs in Australia: identifying the gaps. Health Promotion International 2009;24(4):404‐415. - PubMed
Clifford 2011
    1. Clifford A, Pulver LJ, Richmond R, Shakeshaft A, Ivers R. Smoking, nutrition, alcohol and physical activity interventions targeting Indigenous Australians: rigorous evaluations and new directions needed. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health 2011;35(1):38‐46. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1753-6405.2010.00631.x] - DOI - PubMed
COAG 2009
    1. Council of Australian Governments. National Partnership Agreement on closing the gap in Indigenous Heatlh Outcomes. http://www.coag.gov.au/intergov_agreements/federal_financial_relations/d... [accessed 30/05/2011] 2009.
Cunningham 2003
    1. Cunningham C, Stanley F. Indigenous by definition, experience, or world view. BMJ 2003;327(7412):403‐4. - PMC - PubMed
De Vries 2003a
    1. Vries H, Mudde A, Leijs I, Charlton A, Vartiainen E, Buijs G, et al. The European Smoking prevention Framework Approach (ESFA): an example of integral prevention. Health Education Research 2003;18(5):611‐26. [DOI: 10.1093/her/cyg031] - DOI - PubMed
De Vries 2003b
    1. Vries H, Engels R, Kremers S, Wetzels J, Mudde A. Parents' and friends' smoking status as predictors of smoking onset: findings from six European countries. Health Education Research 2003;18(5):627‐36. [DOI: 10.1093/her/cyg032] - DOI - PubMed
Eades 1999
    1. Eades S, Read A. Infant care practices in a metropolitan aboriginal population Bibbulung Gnarneep Team. Journal of Paediatric Child Health 1999;35(6):541‐4. - PubMed
Elton‐Marshall 2011
    1. Elton‐Marshall T, Leatherdale ST, Burkhalter R. Tobacco, alcohol and illicit drug use among Aboriginal youth living off‐reserve: results from the Youth Smoking Survey. Canadian Medical Association Journal 2011;183(8):E480‐6. [DOI: 10.1503/cmaj.101913] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
EPOC 2009
    1. Cochrane EPOC Group 2009. Cochrane Effective Practice and Organisation of Care Group. Available from: http://www.epoc.cochrane.org (accessed 1 November 2009).
Fiore 2004
    1. Fiore MC, Croyle RT, Curry SJ, Cutler CM, Davis RM, Gordon C, et al. Preventing 3 million premature deaths and helping 5 Million smokers quit: A national action plan for tobacco cessation. American Journal of Public Health 2004;94(2):205‐10. [DOI: 10.2105/AJPH.94.2.205] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
First Nations Center 2005
    1. First Nations Center. First Nations Regional Longitudinal Health Survey (RHS) 2002/2003. Results for adults, youth and children living in first nations communities. First Nations Centre, Ottawa, Canada 2005:1‐322.
Fleming 2008
    1. Fleming CB, Catalano RF, Mazza JJ, Brown EC, Haggerty KP, Harachi TW. After‐school activities, misbehaviour in school, and delinquency from the end of elementary school through the beginning of high school: a test of social development model hypotheses. Journal of Early Adolescence 2008;28:277‐303. [DOI: 10.1177/0272431607313589] - DOI
Floyd 2000
    1. Floyd DL, Prentice‐Dunn S, Rogers RW. A meta‐analysis of research on protection motivation theory. Journal of Applied Social Psychology 2000;30(2):407‐29. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1559-1816.2000.tb02323.x] - DOI
Gail 1992
    1. Gail MH, Byar DP, Pechacek TF, Corle DK. Aspects of statistical design for the Community Intervention Trial for Smoking Cessation (COMMIT). Controlled Clinical Trials 1992;13:6‐21. - PubMed
Glanz 2008
    1. Glanz K, Rimer BK, Viswanath K. Health behavior and health education: Theory, research and practice. 4th Edition. San Francisco: Josey‐Bass (John Wiley and Sons), 2008.
Glover 2005
    1. Glover M. Analysing smoking using Te Whare Tapa Wha. New Zealand Journal of Psychology 2005;34(1):13‐9.
Glover 2012
    1. Glover M. Personal correspondence 07/05/2012.
Gohdes 2002
    1. Gohdes D, Harwell TS, Cummings S, Moore KR, Smilie JG, Helgerson SD. Smoking cessation and prevention: an urgent public health priority for American Indians in the Northern Plains. PublicHealthReports 2002;117(3):281‐290. - PMC - PubMed
Health Canada 2003
    1. Health Canada. Smoking in Canada: an overview, Canadian Tobacco Use Monitoring Survey Fact‐sheets. http://www.hc‐sc.gc.ca/hl‐vs/tobac‐tabac/research‐recher‐che/stat/_ctums‐esutc_fs‐if/2... 2003:accessed 06/07/2010.
Higgins 2011
    1. Higgins JPT, Green S. Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions. Vol. 5.1.0, The Cochrane Collaboration, March 2011.
Hill 2005
    1. Hill S, Blakely TA, Fawcett JM, Howden‐Chapman P. Could mainstream anti‐smoking programs increase inequalities in tobacco use? New Zealand data from 1981‐96. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health 2005;39(3):279‐84. [PUBMED: 15991779] - PubMed
Ivers 2001
    1. Ivers R. Indigenous Australians and Tobacco: a literature review. Cooperative Research Centre for Aboriginal and Tropical Health, Darwin 2001.
Ivers 2003
    1. Ivers RG, Farrington M, Burns CB, Bailie RS, D'Abbs PH, Richmond RL, et al. A study of the use of free nicotine patches by Indigenous people. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health 2003;27(5):486‐490. - PubMed
Ivers 2004
    1. Ivers RG. An evidence‐based approach to planning tobacco interventions for Aboriginal people. Drug and Alcohol Review 2004;23(1):5‐9. - PubMed
Johnston 1997
    1. Johnston F, Beecham R, Dalgleish P, Malpraburr T, Gamarania G. The Maningrida 'Be Smoke Free' Project. Health Promotion Journal of Australia 1997;8(1):12‐7.
Johnston 2008
    1. Johnston V, Thomas DP. Smoking behaviours in a remote Australian Indigenous community: The influence of family and other factors. Social Science & Medicine 2008;67:1708‐16. [DOI: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2008.09.016] - DOI - PubMed
Leavy 2010
    1. Leavy J, Wood L, Phillips F, Rosenberg M. Try and try again: Qualitative insights into adolescent smoking experimentation and notions of addiction. Health Promotion Journal of Australia 2010;21(3):208‐14. - PubMed
Lindorff 2002
    1. Lindorff K, Canberra: National Aboriginal Community Controlled Health Organisation NACCHO. Tobacco – time for action. National Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Tobacco Control Project. Final Report. http://www.weftweb.net/naccho/Files/NACCHO_Tobacco_report.pdf [accessed 17/07/2011] 2002.
Mackay 2006
    1. Mackay J, Eriksen M, Shafey O. The Tobacco Atlas. Second Edition. Georgia, USA: American Cancer Society, 2006. [ISBN: 0‐944235‐58‐1]
McDonald 2010
    1. McDonald E, Priest N, Doyle J, Bailie R, Anderson I, Waters E. Issues and challenges for systematic reviews in Indigenous health. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 2010;64:643‐4. [DOI: 10.1136/jech.2008.077503] - DOI - PubMed
McKennitt 2007
    1. McKennitt D. A smoking prevention program for Aboriginal youth. First Peoples Child & Family Review 2007;3(2):52‐5.
Ministry of Health 2004
    1. Ministry of Health. Clearing the Smoke: A five‐year plan for tobacco control in New Zealand (2004–2009). http://www.moh.govt.nz/moh.nsf/0/AAFC588B348744B9CC256F39006EB29E/$File/... [accessed 30/05/2011] 2004.
Ministry of Health 2009
    1. Ministry of Health: Tobacco Control Team, Roberts F, Devlin M, Bhattacharya A. Tobacco Trends 2008: A brief update of tobacco use in New Zealand. http://www.moh.govt.nz [accessed 17/07/2011]. Wellington: Ministry of Health; Manatu Hauora, 2009. [ISBN: ISBN 978‐0‐478‐31939‐2 (online)]
Mullins 1999
    1. Mullins R, Livingston P, Borland R. A strategy for involving general practitioners in smoking control. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health 1999;23:249‐51. - PubMed
Nettelton 2007
    1. Nettelton C, Napolitano D, Stephens C. Overview of Current Knowledge of the Social Determinants of Indigenous Health. A working paper commissioned by the Commision on Social Determinants of Health. World Health Organisation 2007.
Penman 2006
    1. Penman R, Australian Government, Department of Families, Community Services and Indigenous Affairs. The 'growing up' of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children: A literature review. http://www.fahcsia.gov.au/about/publicationsarticles/research/occasional... [accessed 17/07/2011] 2006. [ISBN: 1 921 13033 4]
Rao 1992
    1. Rao JNK, Scott AJ. A simple method for the analysis of cluster binary data. Biometrics 1992;48:577‐85. - PubMed
Reading 1999
    1. Reading J, Allard Y. "The Tobacco Report." In First Nations and Inuit Regional Health Survey National Report. Ottawa: First Nations and Inuit Regional Health Survey National Steering Committee.
Reading 2009
    1. Reading CL, Wien F. Health Inequalities and Social Determinantsof Aboriginal Peoples’ Health. National Collaborating Centre for Aboriginal Health; http://epub.sub.uni‐hamburg.de/epub/volltexte/2009/3060/pdf/NCCAH_Loppie_Wien_Report.pdf [accessed 17/07/2011] 2009.
Reading 2010
    1. Reading J. The Crisis of Chronic Disease among Aboriginal Peoples: A Challenge for Public Health, Population Health and Social Policy. http://www.cahr.uvic.ca/docs/ChronicDisease%20Final.pdf [accessed 27/04/2012] 2010:1‐196. [ISBN: 978‐1‐55058‐407‐3]
Richardson 2009
    1. Richardson L, Hemsing N, Greaves L, Assanand S, Allen P, McCullough L, et al. Preventing smoking in young people: A systematic review of the impact of access interventions. International Journal of Environmental Research in Public Health 2009;6:1485‐514. [DOI: 10.3390/ijerph6041485] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Richmond 1999
    1. Richmond RL. The physician can make a difference with smokers: evidence based clinical approaches. International Journal of Tuberculosis and Lung Disease 1999;3:100‐12. - PubMed
Ross 2006
    1. Ross H, Chaloupka FJ, Wakefield M. Youth smoking uptake progress: Price and public policy effects. Eastern Economic Journal 2006;32(2):355‐67.
SA Department of Heatlh 2010
    1. South Australia Department of Health. Statewide Service Strategy Division. Aboriginal Health Care Plan 2010‐2016/South Australia, Dept. of Health, Statewide Service Strategy Division. http://www.sahealth.sa.gov.au/wps/wcm/connect/829485804451c671811f8d23cd... [accessed 30/05/2011] 2010. [ISBN: 978‐1‐74243‐208‐3 (pbk.)]
Sanson‐Fisher 2006
    1. Sanson‐Fisher RW, Campbell EM, Perkins JJ, Blunden S, Davis B. Indigenous health research: a critical review of outputs over time. Medical Journal of Australia 2006;184:502‐5. - PubMed
Scollo 2008
    1. Scollo MM, Winstanley MH [editors]. Tobacco in Australia: Facts and Issues; Chapter 8: Tobacco use among Aboriginal peoples and Torres Strait Islanders. http://www.tobaccoinaustralia.org.au/chapter‐8‐aptsi [accessed 17/07/2011] 2008; Vol. Third edition. [ISBN: 978‐0‐947283‐76‐6 ]
Scragg 2007
    1. Scragg R, Laugesen M. Influence of smoking by family and best friend on adolescent tobacco smoking: results from the 2002 New Zealand national survey of Year 10 students. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health 2007;31(3):217‐23. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1753-6405.2007.00051.x] - DOI - PubMed
Sherman 2009
    1. Sherman EJ, Primack BA. What works to prevent adolescent smoking? A systematic review of the National Cancer Institute's research‐tested intervention programs. Journal of School Health 2009;79(9):391‐9. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1746-1561.2009.00426.x] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Stretcher 1997
    1. Stertcher VJ, Rosenstock IM. Cambridge Handbook of Psychology, Health and Medicine: Psychological Aspects of Health and Illness. London: Cambridge University Press, 1997.
Surgeon General's Report 2012
    1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, US Department of Health and Human Services. 2012 Surgeon General's Report ‐ Preventing Tobacco Use Among Youth and Young Adults. http://www.surgeongeneral.gov/library/reports/preventing‐youth‐tobacco‐u... [accessed 29/04/2012] 2012.
Thomas 2006
    1. Thomas RE, Perera R. School‐based programmes for preventing smoking. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2006, Issue 3. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD001293.pub2] - DOI - PubMed
Thomas 2008
    1. Thomas RE, Baker PRA, Lorenzetti D. Family‐based programmes for preventing smoking by children and adolescents. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2008, Issue 4. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD004493.pub2] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
US Dept Health and Human Services 1998
    1. US Department of Health and Human Services. Tobacco use among US Racial/Ethical minority groups ‐ African Americans, American Indians and Alaska Natives, Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders, and Hispanics: A Report of the Surgeon General. Trends in Tobacco Use 1998; Vol. 1:1‐332. - PubMed
US Dept of Health and Human Services 2010
    1. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Ending the Tobacco Epidemic: A Tobacco Control Strategic Action Plan for the U.S. Department of Heatlh and Human Services. http://www.hhs.gov/ash/initiatives/tobacco/tobaccostrategicplan2010.pdf [accessed 30/05/2011] 2010.
Warren 2009
    1. Warren C, Lea V, Lee J, Jones N, Asma S, McKenna M. Change in tobacco use among 13‐15 year olds between 1999 and 2008: findings from the Global youth Tobacco Survey. Global Health Promotion 2009;16:38‐90. - PubMed
White 2009
    1. White V, Mason T, Briggs V. How do trends in smoking prevalence among Indigenous and non‐Indigenous Australian secondary students between 1996 and 2005 compare?. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health 2009;33(2):147‐53. [PUBMED: 19413859 ] - PubMed
WHO 2005
    1. World Health Organization. The role of health professionals in tobacco control. http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/releases/2005/pr22/en/index.html (accessed 10/10/2011) 2005.
Wood 2008
    1. Wood L, France K, Hunt K, Eades S, Slack‐Smith L. Indigenous women and smoking during pregnancy: Knowledge, cultural contexts and barriers to cessation. Social Science and Medicine 2008;66:2378‐89. [DOI: 10.1016/j.socsccimed.2008.01.024] - DOI - PubMed
Zwar 2009
    1. Zwar NA, Richmond RL, Davidson D, HasanI. Postgraduate education for doctors in smoking cessation. Drug and Alcohol Review 2009;28:466‐73. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1465-33662.2009.00103.x] - DOI - PubMed