Molecular mechanisms of natural killer cell activation in response to cellular stress

Abstract

Protection against cellular stress from various sources, such as nutritional, physical, pathogenic, or oncogenic, results in the induction of both intrinsic and extrinsic cellular protection mechanisms that collectively limit the damage these insults inflict on the host. The major extrinsic protection mechanism against cellular stress is the immune system. Indeed, it has been well described that cells that are stressed due to association with viral infection or early malignant transformation can be directly sensed by the immune system, particularly natural killer (NK) cells. Although the ability of NK cells to directly recognize and respond to stressed cells is well appreciated, the mechanisms and the breadth of cell-intrinsic responses that are intimately linked with their activation are only beginning to be uncovered. This review will provide a brief introduction to NK cells and the relevant receptors and ligands involved in direct responses to cellular stress. This will be followed by an in-depth discussion surrounding the various intrinsic responses to stress that can naturally engage NK cells, and how therapeutic agents may induce specific activation of NK cells and other innate immune cells by activating cellular responses to stress.

Figure 1

NK cell receptors and their cognate ligands. Major inhibitory and activating receptors on NK cells and their cognate ligands on targets are depicted. BAT3, human leukocyte antigen (HLA)-B-associated transcript 3; CRTAM, class I-restricted T-cell-associated molecule; HA, hemagglutinin; HLA-E, HLA class I histocompatibility antigen, alpha chain E; IgG, immunoglobulin G; LFA-1, leukocyte function-associated antigen-1; LLT1, lectin-like transcript 1; TIGIT, T cell immunoglobulin and ITIM domain

Figure 2

Overview of the molecular pathways leading to NK cell recognition of intrinsic cellular stress. Oncogenic transformation and viral infection can activate intrinsic cellular responses to stress. These responses include activation of the DNA-damage response, senescence, tumor suppressors, and the presentation and/or release of HSPs that, in turn, can activate NK cells through various receptor–ligand interactions. Senescent cells can also release pro-inflammatory cytokines that can recruit NK cells and other innate immunity, such as macrophages. CCL2, C-C motif chemokine ligand 2; CXCL11, C-X-C motif chemokine ligand 11; DR, death receptor 5; IFN, interferon; IL, interleukin; LFA-1, leukocyte function-associated antigen-1; TRAIL, tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand

Figure 3

Molecular mechanisms that regulate the cell surface expression of NKG2D ligands. The major group of NK cell-activating ligands that are upregulated by intrinsic cellular responses to stress are those that bind the NKG2D receptor. Activation of the DNA-damage response, senescence, oncogenes, tumor suppressors, or sensing of deregulated proliferation can induce NKG2D ligand gene transcription and increase mRNA translation, leading to extracellular protein expression. MMP, matrix metalloproteases

Figure 4

The role of NK cells during immunogenic cell death induced by cancer therapy. (1) Immunogenic cell death induced by various cancer therapies such as chemotherapy and radiotherapy involves the cell surface exposure of calreticulin (CRT), and the release of high mobility group box (HMGB)-1 and adenosine triphosphate (ATP) that triggers dendritic cell engulfment of dying cells, antigen presentation, and production of interleukin (IL)-1β, ultimately leading to activation of CD8 T cells. The efficient priming of tumor-specific CD8 T cells may require the presence of innate immunity such as γδ T cells that produce IL-17 in response to IL-1β. (2) Various cancer therapies can also activate intrinsic cellular responses to stress in tumor cells that can result in the upregulation of NKG2D ligands and the DNAM-1 ligand, CD155. This subsequently leads to the recognition and destruction of tumors by NK cells and CD8 T cells. HDAC, histone deacetylases; IFN, interferon