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Meta-Analysis
. 2013 Apr 30;2013(4):CD001293.
doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD001293.pub3.

School-based programmes for preventing smoking

Roger E Thomas  1 , Julie McLellan, Rafael Perera
Affiliations
Meta-Analysis

School-based programmes for preventing smoking

Roger E Thomas et al. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. .

Abstract

Background: Helping young people to avoid starting smoking is a widely endorsed public health goal, and schools provide a route to communicate with nearly all young people. School-based interventions have been delivered for close to 40 years.

Objectives: The primary aim of this review was to determine whether school smoking interventions prevent youth from starting smoking. Our secondary objective was to determine which interventions were most effective. This included evaluating the effects of theoretical approaches; additional booster sessions; programme deliverers; gender effects; and multifocal interventions versus those focused solely on smoking.

Search methods: We searched the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL), the Cochrane Tobacco Addiction Group's Specialised Register, MEDLINE, EMBASE, PsycINFO, ERIC, CINAHL, Health Star, and Dissertation Abstracts for terms relating to school-based smoking cessation programmes. In addition, we screened the bibliographies of articles and ran individual MEDLINE searches for 133 authors who had undertaken randomised controlled trials in this area. The most recent searches were conducted in October 2012.

Selection criteria: We selected randomised controlled trials (RCTs) where students, classes, schools, or school districts were randomised to intervention arm(s) versus a control group, and followed for at least six months. Participants had to be youth (aged 5 to 18). Interventions could be any curricula used in a school setting to deter tobacco use, and outcome measures could be never smoking, frequency of smoking, number of cigarettes smoked, or smoking indices.

Data collection and analysis: Two reviewers independently assessed studies for inclusion, extracted data and assessed risk of bias. Based on the type of outcome, we placed studies into three groups for analysis: Pure Prevention cohorts (Group 1), Change in Smoking Behaviour over time (Group 2) and Point Prevalence of Smoking (Group 3).

Main results: One hundred and thirty-four studies involving 428,293 participants met the inclusion criteria. Some studies provided data for more than one group.Pure Prevention cohorts (Group 1) included 49 studies (N = 142,447). Pooled results at follow-up at one year or less found no overall effect of intervention curricula versus control (odds ratio (OR) 0.94, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.85 to 1.05). In a subgroup analysis, the combined social competence and social influences curricula (six RCTs) showed a statistically significant effect in preventing the onset of smoking (OR 0.49, 95% CI 0.28 to 0.87; seven arms); whereas significant effects were not detected in programmes involving information only (OR 0.12, 95% CI 0.00 to 14.87; one study), social influences only (OR 1.00, 95% CI 0.88 to 1.13; 25 studies), or multimodal interventions (OR 0.89, 95% CI 0.73 to 1.08; five studies). In contrast, pooled results at longest follow-up showed an overall significant effect favouring the intervention (OR 0.88, 95% CI 0.82 to 0.96). Subgroup analyses detected significant effects in programmes with social competence curricula (OR 0.52, 95% CI 0.30 to 0.88), and the combined social competence and social influences curricula (OR 0.50, 95% CI 0.28 to 0.87), but not in those programmes with information only, social influence only, and multimodal programmes.Change in Smoking Behaviour over time (Group 2) included 15 studies (N = 45,555). At one year or less there was a small but statistically significant effect favouring controls (standardised mean difference (SMD) 0.04, 95% CI 0.02 to 0.06). For follow-up longer than one year there was a statistically nonsignificant effect (SMD 0.02, 95% CI -0.00 to 0.02).Twenty-five studies reported data on the Point Prevalence of Smoking (Group 3), though heterogeneity in this group was too high for data to be pooled.We were unable to analyse data for 49 studies (N = 152,544).Subgroup analyses (Pure Prevention cohorts only) demonstrated that at longest follow-up for all curricula combined, there was a significant effect favouring adult presenters (OR 0.88, 95% CI 0.81 to 0.96). There were no differences between tobacco-only and multifocal interventions. For curricula with booster sessions there was a significant effect only for combined social competence and social influences interventions with follow-up of one year or less (OR 0.50, 95% CI 0.26 to 0.96) and at longest follow-up (OR 0.51, 95% CI 0.27 to 0.96). Limited data on gender differences suggested no overall effect, although one study found an effect of multimodal intervention at one year for male students. Sensitivity analyses for Pure Prevention cohorts and Change in Smoking Behaviour over time outcomes suggested that neither selection nor attrition bias affected the results.

Authors' conclusions: Pure Prevention cohorts showed a significant effect at longest follow-up, with an average 12% reduction in starting smoking compared to the control groups. However, no overall effect was detected at one year or less. The combined social competence and social influences interventions showed a significant effect at one year and at longest follow-up. Studies that deployed a social influences programme showed no overall effect at any time point; multimodal interventions and those with an information-only approach were similarly ineffective.Studies reporting Change in Smoking Behaviour over time did not show an overall effect, but at an intervention level there were positive findings for social competence and combined social competence and social influences interventions.

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Conflict of interest statement

None known.

Figures

1
1
Flow chart of retrieval and identification of Group 1, 2 and 3 studies.
2
2
Risk of bias graph: review authors' judgements about each risk of bias item presented as percentages across all included studies, whether or not they had analysable data. The non‐coloured section of each bar represents different arms of multiple‐arm studies, for which risk of bias is assessed as a single measure for each study.
3
3
Forest plot of comparison: 1 All curricula versus control, outcome: 1.2 Group 1: Pure Prevention cohorts (adjusted) at longest follow‐up.
1.1
1.1. Analysis
Comparison 1 All curricula versus control, Outcome 1 Group 1: Pure Prevention cohort (adjusted) ‐ 1 year or less.
1.2
1.2. Analysis
Comparison 1 All curricula versus control, Outcome 2 Group 1: Pure Prevention cohort (adjusted) ‐ longest follow‐up.
1.3
1.3. Analysis
Comparison 1 All curricula versus control, Outcome 3 Group 2: Change in Smoking Behaviour over time ‐ 1 year or less.
1.4
1.4. Analysis
Comparison 1 All curricula versus control, Outcome 4 Group 2: Change in Smoking Behaviour over time ‐ longest follow‐up.
1.5
1.5. Analysis
Comparison 1 All curricula versus control, Outcome 5 Group 3: Point Prevalence of Smoking ‐ 1 year or less.
1.6
1.6. Analysis
Comparison 1 All curricula versus control, Outcome 6 Group 3: Point Prevalence of Smoking ‐ longest follow‐up.
2.1
2.1. Analysis
Comparison 2 Group 1: Sensitivity analyses (adjusted), Outcome 1 Low attrition ‐ 1 year or less.
2.2
2.2. Analysis
Comparison 2 Group 1: Sensitivity analyses (adjusted), Outcome 2 Low attrition ‐ longest follow‐up.
2.3
2.3. Analysis
Comparison 2 Group 1: Sensitivity analyses (adjusted), Outcome 3 Low & unclear attrition ‐ 1 year or less.
2.4
2.4. Analysis
Comparison 2 Group 1: Sensitivity analyses (adjusted), Outcome 4 Low & unclear attrition‐ longest follow‐up.
2.5
2.5. Analysis
Comparison 2 Group 1: Sensitivity analyses (adjusted), Outcome 5 Low selection bias ‐ 1 year or less.
2.6
2.6. Analysis
Comparison 2 Group 1: Sensitivity analyses (adjusted), Outcome 6 Low selection bias ‐ longest follow‐up.
3.1
3.1. Analysis
Comparison 3 Group 1: Gender analysis, Outcome 1 Female ‐ 1 year or less.
3.2
3.2. Analysis
Comparison 3 Group 1: Gender analysis, Outcome 2 Female ‐ longest follow‐up.
3.3
3.3. Analysis
Comparison 3 Group 1: Gender analysis, Outcome 3 Male ‐ 1 year or less.
3.4
3.4. Analysis
Comparison 3 Group 1: Gender analysis, Outcome 4 Male ‐ longest follow‐up.
4.1
4.1. Analysis
Comparison 4 Group 1: Booster sessions analysis, Outcome 1 No Booster sessions ‐ 1 year or less.
4.2
4.2. Analysis
Comparison 4 Group 1: Booster sessions analysis, Outcome 2 No Booster sessions ‐ longest follow‐up.
4.3
4.3. Analysis
Comparison 4 Group 1: Booster sessions analysis, Outcome 3 Boosters sessions ‐ 1 year or less.
4.4
4.4. Analysis
Comparison 4 Group 1: Booster sessions analysis, Outcome 4 Booster sessions ‐ longest follow‐up.
5.1
5.1. Analysis
Comparison 5 Group 1: Tobacco focus, Outcome 1 Multi foci ‐ 1 year or less.
5.2
5.2. Analysis
Comparison 5 Group 1: Tobacco focus, Outcome 2 Multi foci ‐ longest follow‐up.
5.3
5.3. Analysis
Comparison 5 Group 1: Tobacco focus, Outcome 3 Tobacco focused ‐ 1 year or less.
5.4
5.4. Analysis
Comparison 5 Group 1: Tobacco focus, Outcome 4 Tobacco focused ‐ longest follow‐up.
6.1
6.1. Analysis
Comparison 6 Group 1: Peer‐led analysis, Outcome 1 Peer‐led ‐ 1 year or less.
6.2
6.2. Analysis
Comparison 6 Group 1: Peer‐led analysis, Outcome 2 Peer‐led ‐ longest follow‐up.
6.3
6.3. Analysis
Comparison 6 Group 1: Peer‐led analysis, Outcome 3 Adult‐led ‐ 1 year or less.
6.4
6.4. Analysis
Comparison 6 Group 1: Peer‐led analysis, Outcome 4 Adult‐led ‐ longest follow‐up.
7.1
7.1. Analysis
Comparison 7 Group 2: Sensitivity analyses, Outcome 1 Low attrition ‐ 1 year or less.
7.2
7.2. Analysis
Comparison 7 Group 2: Sensitivity analyses, Outcome 2 Low attrition ‐ > 1 year, longest follow‐up.
7.3
7.3. Analysis
Comparison 7 Group 2: Sensitivity analyses, Outcome 3 Low & unclear attrition ‐ 1 year or less.
7.4
7.4. Analysis
Comparison 7 Group 2: Sensitivity analyses, Outcome 4 Low & unclear attrition ‐ > 1 year, longest follow‐up.
7.5
7.5. Analysis
Comparison 7 Group 2: Sensitivity analyses, Outcome 5 Low selection bias ‐ 1 year or less.
7.6
7.6. Analysis
Comparison 7 Group 2: Sensitivity analyses, Outcome 6 Low selection bias ‐ > 1 year, longest follow‐up.
8.1
8.1. Analysis
Comparison 8 Group 3: Sensitivity analyses, Outcome 1 Low attrition ‐ 1 year or less.
8.2
8.2. Analysis
Comparison 8 Group 3: Sensitivity analyses, Outcome 2 Low attrition ‐ > 1 year, longest follow‐up.
8.3
8.3. Analysis
Comparison 8 Group 3: Sensitivity analyses, Outcome 3 Low & unclear attrition ‐ 1 year or less.
8.4
8.4. Analysis
Comparison 8 Group 3: Sensitivity analyses, Outcome 4 Low & unclear attrition ‐ > 1 year, longest follow‐up.
8.5
8.5. Analysis
Comparison 8 Group 3: Sensitivity analyses, Outcome 5 Low selection bias ‐ 1 year or less.
8.6
8.6. Analysis
Comparison 8 Group 3: Sensitivity analyses, Outcome 6 Low selection bias ‐ > 1 year, longest follow‐up.
See this image and copyright information in PMC

Update of

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Elder 1993 {published data only}
    1. Eckhardt L, Woodruff SI, Elder JP. Relative effectiveness of continued, lapsed, and delayed smoking prevention intervention in senior high school students. American Journal of Health Promotion 1997;11:418‐21. - PubMed
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Elder 1996 {published data only}
    1. Edmundson E, Parcel GS, Perry CL, Feldman HA, Smyth M, Johnson CC, et al. The effects of the child and adolescent trial for cardiovascular health intervention on psychosocial determinants of cardiovascular disease risk behavior among third‐grade students. American Journal of Health Promotion 1996;10(3):217‐25. - PubMed
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Ellickson 1990 (HealthEd) {published data only}
    1. Bell RM, Ellickson PL, Harrison ER. Do drug prevention effects persist into high school? How Project ALERT did with ninth graders. Preventive Medicine 1993;22:463‐83. - PubMed
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Ellickson 2003 {published data only}
    1. Ellickson PL, McCaffrey DF, Ghosh Dastidar B, Longshore DL. New inroads in preventing adolescent drug use: results from a large‐scale trial of Project ALERT in middle schools. American Journal of Public Health 2003;93(11):1830‐6. - PMC - PubMed
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Ennett 1994 {published data only}
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    1. Rosenbaum DP, Flewelling RL, Bailey SL, Ringwalt CL, Wilkinson DL. Cops in the classroom: A longitudinal evaluation of Drug Abuse Resistance Education (DARE). Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 1994;31(1):3‐31.
Faggiano 2008 {published data only}
    1. Faggiano F, Galanti MR, Bohrn K, Burkhart G, Vigna‐Taglianti F, Cuomo L, et al. The effectiveness of a school‐based substance abuse prevention program: EU‐Dap cluster randomised controlled trial. Preventive Medicine 2008;47(5):537‐43. - PubMed
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    1. Vigna‐Taglianti F, Vadrucci S, Faggiano F, Burkhart G, Siliquini R, Galanti MR. Is universal prevention against youths' substance misuse really universal? Gender‐specific effects in the EU‐Dap school‐based prevention trial. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 2009;63(9):722‐8. - PubMed
Figa‐Talamanca 1989 (F) {published data only}
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Flay 1985 {published data only (unpublished sought but not used)}
    1. Best JA, Flay BR, Brown JS. Smoking prevention in the Schools: Program Dissemination. Ontario Ministry of Health Report No. CHS‐R26 1983.
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Flay 1995 {published data only}
    1. Brannon BR, Dent CW, Flay BR, Smith G, Sussman S, Pentz MA, et al. The Television, School and Family Project. V. The impact of curriculum delivery. Preventive Medicine 1989;18:492‐502. - PubMed
    1. Flay BR, Brannon BR, Johnson CA, Hanson WB, Ulene AL, Whitney‐Saltiel DA, et al. The Television, School, and Family Smoking Prevention and Cessation Project. I. Theoretical basis and program development. Preventive Medicine 1988;17:585‐607. - PubMed
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    1. Sussman S, Dent CW, Brannon BR, Glowacz KJ, Gleason LR, Ullery S, et al. The Television, School and Family Smoking Prevention and Cessation Project. IV. controlling for program expectancies across experimental and control conditions. Addictive Behaviors 1989;14:601‐10. - PubMed
Focarile 1994 {published data only}
    1. Focarile F, Scaffino L. Results of a randomised controlled trial on preventing the smoking habit in adolescents [Risultati di uno studio controllato randomizzato sulla prevenzione dell'abitudine al fumo degli adolescenti]. Epidemiologia e Prevenzione 1994;18:157‐63. - PubMed
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Forman 1990 (SI) {published data only}
    1. Forman SG, Linney JA, Brondino MJ. Effects of coping skills training on adolescents at risk for substance use. Psychology of Addictive Behavior 1990;4(2):67‐76.
Forman 1990 (SI ‐ NP) {published data only}
    1. Forman SG, Linney JA, Brondino MJ. Effects of coping skills training on adolescents at risk for substance use. Psychology of Addictive Behavior 1990;4(2):67‐76.
Forman 1990 (SI ‐ P) {published data only}
    1. Forman SG, Linney JA, Brondino MJ. Effects of coping skills training on adolescents at risk for substance use. Psychology of Addictive Behavior 1990;4(2):67‐76.
Gabrhelik 2012 {published data only}
    1. Gabrhelik R, Duncan A, Lee MH, Stastna L, Furr‐Holden CDM, Miovsky M. Sex specific trajectories in cigarette smoking behaviours among students participating in the Unplugged school‐based randomised control trial for substance use prevention. Addictive Behaviors 2012;37(10):1145‐50. - PubMed
    1. Gabrhelik R, Duncan A, Miovsky M, Furr‐Holden CDM, Stastna L, Jurystova L. “Unplugged”: A school‐based randomised control trial to prevent and reduce adolescent substance use in the Czech Republic. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 2012;124:79‐87. - PMC - PubMed
Garcia 2005 {published data only}
    1. García P, Fernández A, Sánchez JM, Carrillo A, Alcaraz J, Abad E. Randomized controlled trial of a health prevention program against smoking in a population of secondary school students. Revista de Calidad Asistencial 2005;20(1):4‐13.
Gatta 1991 {published data only}
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Gersick 1988 {unpublished data only}
    1. Gersick KE, Grady K, Snow DL. Social‐cognitive skill development with sixth graders and its initial impact on substance use. Journal of Drug Education 1988;18(1):55‐70. - PubMed
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Gilchrist 1986 {published data only}
    1. Gilchrist LD, Schinke SP, Bobo JK, Snow WH. Self‐control skills for preventing smoking. Addictive Behaviors 1986;11:169‐74. - PubMed
Gindre 1995 {published data only}
    1. Gindre C, Conard J, Ducos‐Mieral C, Champetier de Ribes G. Departmental programme for the early prevention of tobacco addiction among school children. In: Slama K editor(s). Tobacco and Health. Proceedings of the 9th World Conference on Tobacco and Health 1994. New York: Plenum Press, 1995.
Glanz 2007 {published data only}
    1. Glanz K, Lunde KB, Leakey T, Maddock J, Koga K, Yamauchi J, et al. Activating multi‐ethnic youth for smoking prevention: Design, baseline findings, and implementation of project SPLASH. Journal of Cancer Education 2007;22(1):56‐61. - PubMed
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Gordon 2008 {published data only}
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Hamilton 2005 {published data only}
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Hanewinkel 1994 {published data only}
    1. Hanewinkel R, Ferstl R, Burow F. Conception and evaluation of a behavioural non‐smoking intervention in schools [Konzeption und Evaluation einer verhaltensorientierten Nichtraucherförderung an Schulen]. Verhaltenstherapie 1994;4:104‐10.
Hansen 1988a {published data only}
    1. Graham JW, Johnson CA, Hansen WB, Flay BR, Gee M. Drug use prevention programs, gender and ethnicity: evaluation of three seventh‐grade Project SMART cohorts. Preventive Medicine 1990;19:305‐13. - PubMed
    1. Hansen WB, Johnson CA, Flay BR, Graham JW, Sobel J. Affective and social influences approaches to the prevention of multiple substance abuse among seventh grade students: Results from Project SMART. Preventive Medicine 1988;17:135‐54. - PubMed
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Hansen 1991 {published data only}
    1. Donaldson SI, Graham JW, Hansen WB. Testing the generalisability of intervening mechanism theories: understanding the effects of adolescent drug use prevention interventions. Journal of Behavioral Medicine 1994;17(2):195‐216. - PubMed
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Hecht 2003 {published data only}
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Hecht 2008 {published data only}
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Hedman 2010 (Interview) {published data only}
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Hirschmann 1989 {published data only}
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Hort 1995 {published data only}
    1. Hort W, Hort H, Willers R. Intervention study against cigarette smoking in Duesseldorf high school pupils [Interventionsstudie gegen das Zigarettenrauchen von Düsseldorfer Hauptschülern 1992‐94]. Zeitschrift Kardiologie 1995;84:700‐11. - PubMed
Howard 1996 {published data only}
    1. Howard JK, Bindler RM, Synoground G, Gemert FC. A cardiovascular risk reduction program for the classroom. Journal of School Nursing 1996;12:4‐11. - PubMed
Johnson 2009 {published data only}
    1. Johnson CC, Myers L, Webber LS, Boris NW. Profiles of the adolescent smoker:models of tobacco use among 9th grade high school students Acadiana Coalition of Teens against Tobacco (ACTT). Preventive Medicine 2004;39:551‐8. - PubMed
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Jøsendal 1998 (P + T) {published data only}
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Kaufman 1994 {published data only}
    1. Kaufman JS, Jason LA, Sawlski LM, Halpert JA. A comprehensive multi‐media program to prevent smoking among black students. Journal of Drug Education 1994;24:95‐108. - PubMed
Kellam 1998 (GBG) {published data only}
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Laniado‐Laborín 1993 {published data only}
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La Torre 2010 (A) {published data only}
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Lloyd 1983 {published data only}
    1. Alexander HM, Callcott R, Dobson AJ, Hardes GR, Lloyd DM, O'Connell DL, et al. Cigarette smoking and drug use in schoolchildren: IV‐‐factors associated with changes in smoking behaviour. International Journal of Epidemiology 1983;12:59‐66. - PubMed
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Lotrean 2010 {published data only}
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MacPherson 1980 {published data only}
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McCambridge 2011 {published data only}
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Murray 1984a {published data only}
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Murray 1992 (MSPP) {published data only}
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Noland 1998 {published data only}
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Norman 2008 {published data only}
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Nutbeam 1993 (FSE) {published data only}
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O'Donnell 1995 {published data only}
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Perry 1996 {published data only}
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Perry 2003 (Dare boys) {published data only}
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    1. Perry CL, Komro KA, Veblen‐Mortenson S, Bosma LM, Farbakhsh K, Munson KA, et al. A randomised controlled trial of the middle and junior high school D.A.R.E. and D.A.R.E. Plus programs. Archives of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine 2003;157:178‐84. - PubMed
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Perry 2009 {published data only}
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    1. Babar AA, Stigler MH, Perry CL, Arora M, Shrivastav R, Reddy KS. Tobacco‐use psychosocial risk profiles of girls and boys in urban India: implications for gender‐specific tobacco intervention development. Nicotine & Tobacco Research 2010;12(1):29‐36. - PubMed
    1. Bate SL, Stigler MH, Thompson MS, Arora M, Perry CL, Reddy KS, et al. Psychosocial mediators of a school‐based tobacco prevention program in India: results from the first year of project MYTRI. Prevention Science 2009;10(2):116‐28. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Goenka S, Tewari A, Arora M, Stigler MH, Perry CL, Arnold JP, et al. Process evaluation of a tobacco prevention program in Indian schools‐‐methods, results and lessons learnt. Health Education Research 2010;25(6):917‐35. - PMC - PubMed
Peterson 2000 {published data only}
    1. Kealey KA, Peterson AV Jr, Gaul MA, Dinh KT. Teacher training as a behavior change process: principles and results from a longitudinal study. Health Education & Behavior 2000;27:64‐81. - PubMed
    1. Mann SL, Peterson AV Jr, Marek PM, Kealey KA. The Hutchinson Smoking Prevention Project trial: design and baseline characteristics. Preventive Medicine 2000;30:485‐95. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
    1. Peterson AV Jr, Kealey KA, Mann SL, Marek PM, Sarason IG. Hutchinson Smoking Prevention Project: long‐term randomised trial in school‐based tobacco use prevention‐results on smoking. Journal of the National Cancer Institute 2000;92:1979‐91. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
    1. Peterson AV Jr, Mann SL, Kealey KA, Marek PM. Experimental design and methods for school‐based randomised trials: Experience from the Hutchinson Smoking Prevention Project (HSSP). Controlled Clinical Trials 2000;21:144‐65. - PubMed
Piper 2000 (HFL) {published data only}
    1. Moberg DP, Piper DL, Wu J, Serlin RC. When total randomisation is impossible: Nested randomised assignment. Evaluation Review 1993;17(3):271‐91.
    1. Piper DL, Moberg DP, King MJ. The healthy for life project: Behavioral outcomes. Journal of Primary Prevention 2000;21:47‐73.
Prokhorov 2008 {published data only}
    1. Minnix JA, Blalock JA, Marani S, Prokhorov AV, Cinciripini PM. Self‐efficacy mediates the effect of depression on smoking susceptibility in adolescents. Nicotine & Tobacco Research 2011;13(8):699‐705. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Prokhorov AV, Kelder SH, Shegog R, Conroy JL, Murray N, Peters R, et al. Project ASPIRE: an interactive, multimedia smoking prevention and cessation curriculum for culturally diverse high school students. Substance Use & Misuse 2010;45(6):983‐1006. - PubMed
    1. Prokhorov AV, Kelder SH, Shegog R, Murray N, Peters R, Jr, Agurcia‐Parker C, et al. Impact of A Smoking Prevention Interactive Experience (ASPIRE), an interactive, multimedia smoking prevention and cessation curriculum for culturally diverse high‐school students. Nicotine & Tobacco Research 2008;10(9):1477‐85. - PubMed
Rabinowitz 1974 {published data only}
    1. Rabinowitz HS, Zimmerli WH. Effects of a health education program on junior high school students' knowledge, attitudes and behavior concerning tobacco use. Journal of School Health 1974;64:324‐30. - PubMed
Reddy 2002 (School only) {published data only}
    1. Reddy KS, Arora M, Perry CL, Nair B, Kohli A, Lytle LA, et al. Tobacco and alcohol use outcomes of a school‐based intervention in New Delhi. American Journal of Health Behavior 2002;26(3):173‐81. - PubMed
Resnicow 2008 (LST) {published data only}
    1. Resnicow K, Reddy SP, James S, Gabebodeen OR, Kambaran NS, Langner HG, et al. Comparison of two school‐based smoking prevention programs among South African high school students: results of a randomised trial. Annals of Behavioral Medicine 2008;36(3):231‐43. - PubMed
    1. Resnicow K, Zhang N, Vaughan RD, Reddy SP, James S, Murray DM. When intra‐class correlation coefficients go awry: A case study from a school‐based smoking prevention study in South Africa. American Journal of Public Health 2010;100(9):1714‐8. - PMC - PubMed
Ringwalt 2009a {published data only}
    1. Clark HK, Ringwalt CL, Hanley S, Shamblen SR. Project ALERT's effects on adolescents' prodrug beliefs: a replication and extension study. Health Education & Behavior 2010;37(3):357‐76. - PubMed
    1. Clark HK, Ringwalt CL, Shamblen SR, Hanley SM, Flewelling RL. Are substance use prevention programs more effective in schools making adequate yearly progress? A study of Project ALERT. Journal of Drug Education 2011;41(3):271‐88. - PubMed
    1. Clark HK, Ringwalt Cl, Shamblen SR. Predicting adolescent substance use: The effects of depressed mood and positive expectancies. Addictive Behaviors 2011;36(5):488‐93. - PubMed
    1. Ringwalt CL, Clark HK, Hanley S, Shamblen SR, Flewelling RL. Project ALERT: a cluster randomized trial. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine 2009;163(7):625‐32. - PubMed
    1. Ringwalt CL, Kovach Clark H, Hanley S, Shamblen SR, Flewelling RL. The effects of Project ALERT one year past curriculum Completion. Prevention Science 2010;11:172‐84. - PubMed
Rohrbach 2010a {published data only}
    1. Rohrbach LA, Gunning M, Sun P, Sussman S. The Project Towards No Drug Abuse (TND) Dissemination Trial: Implementation fidelity and immediate outcomes. Prevention Science 2010;11:77‐88. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Rohrbach LA, Sun P, Sussman S. One‐year follow‐up evaluation of the Project Towards No Drug Abuse (TND) Dissemination Trial. Preventive Medicine 2010;51:313‐9. - PMC - PubMed
Scheier 2001 {published data only}
    1. Scheier LM, Botvin GJ, Griffin KW. Preventive intervention effects on developmental progression in drug use: structural equation modelling analyses using longitudinal data. Prevention Science 2001;2(2):91‐112. - PubMed
Schinke 1984 {published data only}
    1. Schinke SP, Gilchrist LD. Preventing cigarette smoking with youth. Journal of Primary Prevention 1984;5:48‐56. - PubMed
Schinke 1985a {published data only}
    1. Schinke SP, Gilchrist LD, Snow WH. Skills intervention to prevent cigarette smoking among adolescents. American Journal of Public Health 1985;75:665‐7. - PMC - PubMed
Schinke 1985b {published data only}
    1. Schincke SP, Gilchrist LD. Preventing substance abuse with children and adolescents. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 1985;53:596‐602. - PubMed
Schinke 1985c {published data only}
    1. Schinke SP, Gilchrist LD, Snow WH, Schilling RF II. Skills‐building methods to prevent smoking by adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Health Care 1985;6:439‐44. - PubMed
Schinke 1986a {published data only}
    1. Schinke SP, Bebel MY, Orlandi MA, Botvin GJ. Prevention strategies for vulnerable pupils. School social work practices to prevent substance abuse. Urban Education 1988;22(4):510‐9.
    1. Schinke SP, Gilchrist LD, Schilling RF II, Senechal VA. Smoking and smokeless tobacco use among adolescents: trends and intervention results. Public Health Reports 1986;101:373‐8. - PMC - PubMed
Schinke 1986b {published data only}
    1. Schinke SP, Gilchrist LD, Schilling RF II, Snow WH, Bobo JK. Skills methods to prevent smoking. Health Education Quarterly 1986;13:23‐7. - PubMed
Schinke 1986c {published data only}
    1. Schinke SP, Gilchrist LD. Preventing tobacco use among young people. Health and Social Work 1986;11:59‐65. - PMC - PubMed
Schinke 1988 {published data only}
    1. Schinke SP, Botvin GJ, Trimble JE, Orlandi MA, Gilchrist LD, Locklear VS. Preventing substance abuse among American‐Indian adolescents: A bicultural competence skills approach. Journal of Counseling Psychology 1988;35:87‐90. - PMC - PubMed
Schinke 2000 {published data only}
    1. Moncher M, Schinke S. Group intervention to prevent tobacco use among Native American youth. Research on Social Work Practice 1994;4(2):160‐71.
    1. Schinke SP, Tepavac L, Cole KC. Preventing substance use among native American youth: Three‐year results. Addictive Behaviors 2000;25:387‐97. - PubMed
Schofield 2003 {published data only}
    1. Lynagh M, Knight J, Schofield MJ, Paras L. Lessons learned from the Hunter Region Health Promoting Schools project in New South Wales, Australia. Journal of School Health 1999;9(6):227‐32. - PubMed
    1. Schofield MJ, Lynagh M, Mishra G. Evaluation of a Health Promoting Schools program to reduce smoking in Australian secondary schools. Health Education Research 2003;18(6):678‐92. - PubMed
Scholz 2000 (G, male) {published data only}
    1. Scholz M, Kaltenbach M. Promoting non‐smoking behavior in 13‐year‐old students in primary schools and high schools. A prospective, randomised intervention study with 1,956 students [Förderung des Nichtraucherverhaltens bei 13‐jährigen Schülerinnen und Schülern von Realschule und Gymnasium. Eine prospektive, randomisierte Interventionsstudie bei 1956 Schülern]. Gesundheitswesen 2000;62(2):78‐85. - PubMed
Schulze 2006 {published data only}
    1. Schulze A, Mons U, Edler L, Potschke‐Langer M. Lack of sustainable prevention effect of the "Smoke‐Free Class Comptetition" on German pupils. Preventive Medicine 2006;42(1):33‐9. - PubMed
Seal 2006 {published data only}
    1. Seal N. Preventing tobacco and drug use among Thai high school students through life skills training. Nursing & Health Sciences 2006;8(3):164‐8. - PubMed
Severson 1991(high, M) {published data only}
    1. Severson HH, Glasgow R, Wirt R, Brozovsky P, Zoref L, et al. Preventing the use of smokeless tobacco and cigarettes by teens: results of a classroom intervention. Health Education Research 1991;6(1):109‐20.
Shope 1996 {published data only}
    1. Shope JT, Copeland LA, Kamp ME, Lang SW. Twelfth grade follow‐up of the effectiveness of a middle school‐ based substance abuse prevention program. Journal of Drug Education 1998;28:185‐97. - PubMed
    1. Shope JT, Copeland LA, Marcoux BC, Kamp ME. Effectiveness of a school‐based substance abuse prevention program. Journal of Drug Education 1996;26:323‐37. - PubMed
Simons‐Morton 2005 {published data only}
    1. Simons MB, Chen RS. Over time relationships between early adolescent and peer substance use. Addictive Behaviors 2006;31:1211‐23. - PubMed
    1. Simons‐Morton B, Haynie D, Saylor K, Crump AD, Chen R. Impact analysis and mediation of outcomes: the Going Places program. Health Education & Behavior 2005;32(2):227‐41. - PubMed
    1. Simons‐Morton B, Haynie D, Saylor K, Crump AD, Chen R. The effects of the Going Places Program on early adolescent substance use and antisocial behavior. Prevention Science 2005;6(3):187‐97. - PubMed
Sloboda 2009 {published data only}
    1. Sloboda Z, Stephens RC, Stephens PC, Grey SF, Teasdale B, Hawthorne RD, et al. The Adolescent Substance Abuse Prevention Study: A randomised field trial of a universal substance abuse prevention program.[see comment]. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 2009;102(1‐3):1‐10. - PubMed
    1. Stephens PC, Sloboda Z, Grey S, Stephens R, Hammond A, Hawthorne R, et al. Is the receptivity of substance abuse prevention programming affected by students' perceptions of the instructor. Health Education & Behavior 2009;36(4):724‐45. - PubMed
    1. Teasdale B, Stephens PC, Sloboda Z, Grey SF, Stephens RC. The influence of program mediators on eleventh grade outcomes for seventh grade substance users and nonusers. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 2009;102:11‐8. - PubMed
Smith 2004 {published data only}
    1. Smith EA, Swisher JD, Vicary JR, Bechtel LJ, Minner D, Henry KL, et al. Evaluation of Life Skills Training and Infused‐Life Skills Training in a rural setting: Outcomes at two years. Journal of Alcohol and Drug Education 2004;48:51‐70.
    1. Swisher JD, Smith EA, Vicary JR, Bechtel LJ, Hopkins AM. A cost‐effectiveness comparison of two approaches to life skills training. Journal of Alcohol and Drug Education 2004;48:71‐87.
    1. Vicary JR, Smith EA, Swisher JD, Bechtel LJ, Elek E, Henry KL, et al. Results of a 3‐year study of two methods of delivery of life skills training. Health Education & Behavior 2006;33:325‐39. - PubMed
Spoth 2001 (ISFP) {published data only}
    1. Guyll M, Spoth RL, Wickrama KAS, Russell D. Family‐focused preventive interventions: Evaluating parental risk moderation of substance use trajectories. Journal of Family Psychology 2004;18(2):293‐301. - PubMed
    1. Spoth R, Redmond C, Shin C, Azevedo K. Brief family intervention effects on adolescent substance initiation: School‐level growth curve analyses 6 years following baseline. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 2004;72(3):535‐42. - PubMed
    1. Spoth R, Reyes ML, Redmond C, Shin C. Assessing a public health approach to delay onset and progression of adolescent substance use: Latent transition and log‐linear analyses of longitudinal family preventive intervention outcomes. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 1999;67(5):619‐30. - PubMed
    1. Spoth R, Trudeau L, Guyll M, Shin C, Redmond C. Universal intervention effects on substance use among young adults by delayed adolescent substance initiation. Journal of Consulting and Clincial Psychology 2009;77(4):620‐32. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Spoth RL, Redmond C, Shin C. Randomized trial of brief family interventions for general populations: adolescent substance use outcomes 4 years following baseline. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 2001;69(4):627‐42. - PubMed
Spoth 2002 (LST + SFP) {published data only}
    1. Spoth R, Randall GK, Shin C, Redmond C. Randomised study of combined universal family and school preventive interventions: patterns of long‐term effects on initiation, regular use, and weekly drunkness. Psychology of Addictive Behaviours 2005;19(4):372‐81. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Spoth RL, Randall GK, Trudeau L, Shin C, Redmond C. Substance use outcomes 5½ years past baseline for partnership‐based, family‐school preventive interventions. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 2008;96(1‐2):57‐68. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Spoth RL, Redmond C, Trudeau L, Shin C. Longitudinal substance initiation outcomes for a universal preventive intervention combining family and school programs. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors 2002;16(2):129‐34. - PubMed
    1. Trudeau L, Spoth R, Lillehoj C, Redmond C, Wickrama KAS. Effects of a preventive intervention on adolescent substance use initiation, expectancies, and refusal intentions. Prevention Science 2003;4(2):109‐22. - PubMed
Spoth 2007 {published data only}
    1. Greenberg MT, Feinberg ME, Meyer‐Chilenski S, Spoth R, Redmond, C. Community and team member factors that influence the early phase functioning of community prevention teams: the PROSPER Project. Journal of Primary Prevention 2007;28:485‐504. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Redmond C, Spoth R, Shin C, Schainker LM, Greenberg MT, Feinberg ME. Long‐term protective factor outcomes of evidence‐based interventions implemented by community teams through a community‐university partnership. Journal of Primary Prevention 2009;30:513‐30. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Spoth R, Clair S, Greenberg MT, Redmond C, Shin C. Toward dissemination of evidence‐based family interventions: Maintenance of community‐based partnership recruitment results and associated factors. Journal of Family Psychology 2007;21(2):137‐46. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Spoth R, Greenberg MT, Bierman K, Redmond C. PROSPER Community‐university partnership model for public education systems: capacity‐building for evidence‐based, competence‐building prevention. Prevention Science 2004;5(1):31‐9. - PubMed
    1. Spoth R, Redmond C, Clair S, Shin C, Greenberg M, Feinberg M. Preventing substance misuse through community‐university partnerships: Randomized controlled trial outcomes 4½ years past baseline. American Journal of Preventive Medicine 2011;40(4):440‐7. - PMC - PubMed
Storr 2002 (CC) {published data only}
    1. Furr‐Holden CD, Ialongo NS, Anthony JC, Petras H, Kellam SG. Developmentally inspired drug prevention: middle school outcomes in a school‐based randomised prevention trial. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 2004;73:149‐58. - PubMed
    1. Ialongo NS, Werthamer L, Kellam SG, Brown CH, Wang S, Lin Y. Proximal impact of two first‐grade preventive interventions on the early risk behaviours for later substance abuse, depression, and antisocial behavior. American Journal of Community Psychology 1999;27(5):599‐641. - PubMed
    1. Lambert SF, Brown TL, Phillips CM, Ialongo NS. The relationship between perceptions of neighbourhood characteristics and substance use among urban African American adolescents. Amerian Journal of Community Psychology 2004;34(3/4):205‐18. - PubMed
    1. Ramchand R, Ialong NS, Chilcoat HD. The effect of working for pay on adolescent tobacco use. American Journal of Public Health 2007;97(11):2056‐62. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Ramchand R, Ialongo NS, Chilcoat HD. Sex differences in the linkage between adolescent work experience and alcohol, tobacco, and marijuana use in an urban environment. 67th Annual Scientific Meeting of the College on Problems of Drug Dependence. 2005.
St Pierre 2005 (Adult) {published data only}
    1. Pierre TL, Osgood DW, Mincemoyer CC, Kaltreider DL, Kauh TJ. Results of an independent evaluation of Project ALERT delivered in schools by cooperative extension. Pevention Science 2005;6(4):305‐17. - PubMed
    1. Pierre TL, Osgood DW, Siennick SE, Kauh TJ, Burden FF. Project ALERT with outside leaders: What leader characteristics are important for success?. Prevention Science 2007;8:51‐64. - PubMed
Sun 2008 (Cognitive) {published data only}
    1. Sun P, Sussman S, Dent CW, Rohrbach LA. One‐year follow‐up evaluation of Project Towards No Drug Abuse (TND‐4). Preventive Medicine 2008;47(4):438‐42. - PMC - PubMed
Sussman 1993 {published data only}
    1. Burton D, Chakravorty B, Weeks K, Flay BR, Dent C, Stacy A, et al. Outcome of a tobacco use cessation randomised trial with high‐school students. Substance Use & Misuse 2009;44(7):965‐80. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Dent CW, Sussman S, Stacy AW, Craig S, Burton D, Flay BR. Two‐year behavior outcomes of Project Towards No Tobacco Use. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 1995;63:676‐7. - PubMed
    1. Sussman S, Dent CW, Stacy AW, Hodgson CS, Burton D, Flay BR. Project Towards No Tobacco Use: implementation, process and post‐test knowledge evaluation. Health Education Research 1993;8:109‐23. - PubMed
    1. Sussman S, Dent CW, Stacy AW, Sun P, Craig S, Simon TR, et al. Project Towards No Tobacco Use: 1‐year behavior outcomes. American Journal of Public Health 1993;83:1245‐50. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Turner GE, Burciaga C, Sussman S, Kleinselski E, Craig S, Dent CW, et al. Which lesson components mediate refusal assertion skill improvement in school‐based adolescent tobacco use prevention. International Journal of the Addictions 1993;28(8):749‐66. - PubMed
Sussman 1995 TND1 CHS C {published data only}
    1. Dent CW, Galaif ER, Sussman S, Stacy AW. Use of the "Theme Study" as means of curriculum development in continuation high schools. Journal of Drug Education 1996;26(4):377‐93. - PubMed
    1. Dent CW, Sussman S, Hennesy M, Galaif ER, Stacy AW, Moss MA, et al. Implementation and process evaluation of a school‐based drug abuse prevention program Project Towards No Drug Abuse. Journal of Drug Education 1998;28(4):361‐75. - PubMed
    1. Simon TR, Sussman S, Dahlberg LL, Dent CW. Influence of a substance abuse prevention curriculum on violence‐related behavior. American Journal of Health Behavior 2002;26(2):103‐10. - PubMed
    1. Sun P, Unger JB, Sussman S. A new measure of smoking initiation and progression among adolescents. American Journal of Health Behavior 2005;29(1):3‐11. - PubMed
    1. Sun W, Skara S, Sun P, Dent CW, Sussman S. Project Towards No Drug Abuse: Long‐Term substance use outcomes evaluation. Preventive Medicine 2006;42:188‐192. - PubMed
Sussman 2007 {published data only}
    1. Sun P, Miyano J, Rohrbach LA, Dent CW, Sussman S. Short‐term effects of Project EX‐4: A classroom‐based prevention and cessation intervention program. Addictive Behaviors 2007;32:342‐350. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Sussman S, Miyano J, Rohrbach LA, Dent CW, Sun P. Corrigendum to 'Six‐month and 1‐year effects of Project EX‐4, a classroom‐based smoking prevention and cessation intervention program. Addictive Behaviors 2010;35(8):803. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Sussman S, Miyano J, Rohrbach LA, Dent CW, Sun P. Six‐month and one‐year effects of Project EX‐4: A classroom‐based smoking prevention and cessation intervention program. Addictive Behaviors 2007;32:3005‐14. - PMC - PubMed
Telch 1990 (Peers) {published data only}
    1. Telch MJ, Miller LM, Killen JD, Cooke S, Maccoby N. Social influences approach to smoking prevention: The effects of videotape delivery with and without same‐age peer leader participation. Addictive Behaviors 1990;15:21‐8. - PubMed
Unger 2004 (FLAVOR) {published data only}
    1. Johnson CA, Cen S, Gallaher P, Palmer PH, Xiao L, Ritt‐Olson A, et al. Why smoking prevention programs sometimes fail. Does effectiveness depend on sociocultural context and individual characteristics?. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention 2007;16(6):1043‐9. - PubMed
    1. Johnson CA, Unger JB, Ritt‐Olson A, Palmer PH, Cen SY, Gallaher P, et al. Smoking prevention for ethnically diverse adolescents; 2‐year outcomes of a multicultural, school‐based smoking prevention curriculum in Southern California. Preventive Medicine 2005;40:842‐52. - PubMed
    1. Unger JB, Chou CP, Palmer PH, Ritt‐Olson A, Gallaher P, Cen S, et al. Project FLAVOR: 1‐year outcomes of a multicultural, school‐based smoking prevention curriculum for adolescents. American Journal of Public Health 2004;94(2):263‐5. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Unger JB, Gallaher P, Palmer PH, Baezconde‐Garbanati L, Trinidad DR, Cen S, et al. No news is bad news: Characteristics of adolescents who provide neither parental consent nor refusal for participation in school‐based survey research. Evaluation Review 2004;28(1):52‐63. - PubMed
    1. Valente TW, Hoffman BR, Ritt‐Olson A, Lichtman K, Johnson CA. Effects of a social‐network method for group assignment strategies on peer‐led tobacco prevention programs in schools. American Journal of Public Health 2003;93:1837‐43. - PMC - PubMed
Valente 2007 (TND) {published data only}
    1. Valente TW, Ritt‐Olson A, Stacy A, Unger JB, Okamoto J, Sussman S. Peer acceleration: Effects of a social network tailored substance abuse prevention program among high‐risk adolescents. Addiction 2007;102(11):1804‐15. - PubMed
Van Lier 2009 {published data only}
    1. Huizink AC, Lier PA, Crijnen AA. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder symptoms mediate early‐onset smoking. European Addiction Research 2009;15(1):1‐9. - PubMed
    1. Lier P, Huizink A, Crijnen A. Impact of a preventive intervention targeting childhood disruptive behavior problems on tobacco and alcohol initiation from age 10 to 13 years. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 2009;100(3):228‐33. - PubMed
    1. Lier PA, Huizink A, Vuijk P. The role of friends' disruptive behavior in the development of children's tobacco experimentation: results from a preventive intervention study. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology 2011;39:45‐57. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Lier PAC, Muthen BO, Sar RM, Crijnen AAM. Preventing disruptive behaviour in elementary schoolchildren: impact of a universal classroom‐based intervention. Journal of Consulting and Clincial Psychology 2004;72(3):467‐78. - PubMed
Villalbí 1993 {published data only}
    1. Villalbí JR, Aubà J, Garcia González A. Results of a school addictive substances abuse prevention program: the Barcelona PASE pilot project [Resultados de un programa escolar de prevención del abuso de sustancia adictivas: proyecto piloto PASE de Barcelona]. Gaceta Sanitaria 1993;7:70‐7. - PubMed
    1. Villalbí JR, Aubà J, García‐González A. Evaluation of a project of primary prevention of smoking: the Barcelona PASE project [Evaluacion de un proyecto de prevencion primaria del tabaquismo: el proyecto piloto PASE de Barcelona]. Revista de Sanidad E Higiene Publica (Madrid) 1992;66:143‐8. - PubMed
Walter 1985 {published data only}
    1. Walter HJ. Primary prevention of chronic disease among children: The school‐based "Know Your Body" intervention trials. Health Education Quarterly 1989;16(2):201‐4. - PubMed
    1. Walter HJ, Hofman A, Connelly PA, Barrett LT, Kost KL. Primary prevention of chronic disease in childhood: Changes in risk factors after one year of intervention. American Journal of Epidemiology 1985;122:772‐81. - PubMed
    1. Walter HJ, Hofman A, Vaughan RD, Wynder EL. Modification of risk factors for coronary heart disease. Five‐year results of a school‐based intervention trial. New England Journal of Medicine 1988;318(17):1093‐100. - PubMed
    1. Walter HJ, Wynder EL. The development, implementation, evaluation, and future directions of a chronic disease prevention program for children: The "Know Your Body" studies.. Preventive Medicine 1989;18:59‐71. - PubMed
Walter 1986 {published data only}
    1. Walter HJ. Primary prevention of chronic disease among children: The school‐based "Know Your Body" intervention trials. Health Education Quarterly 1989;16(2):201‐4. - PubMed
    1. Walter HJ, Hofman A, Barrett LT, Connelly PA, Kost KL, Walk EH, et al. Primary prevention of cardiovascular disease among children: three year results of a randomised intervention trial. In: Hetzel BS, Berenson GS editor(s). Cardiovascular risk factors in childhood: Epidemiology and prevention. Amsterdam: Elsevier North Holland Biomed, 1987:161‐81.
    1. Walter HJ, Hofman A, Connelly PA, Barrett LT, Kost KL. Coronary heart disease prevention in childhood: One‐year results of a randomised intervention study. American Journal of Preventive Medicine 1986;2:239‐49. - PubMed
    1. Walter HJ, Hofman A, Vaughan RD, Wynder EL. Modification of risk factors for coronary heart disease. Five‐year results of a school‐based intervention trial. New England Journal of Medicine 1988;318(17):1093‐100. - PubMed
    1. Walter HJ, Vaughan RD, Wynder EL. Primary prevention of cancer among children: Changes in cigarette smoking and diet after six years of intervention. Journal of National Cancer Institute 1989;81:995‐9. - PubMed
Weichold 2012 (Teacher) {published data only}
    1. Weichold K, Silbereisen RK. Peers and teachers as facilitators of the Life Skills Program IPSY ‐ Results from a pilot study. Sucht 2012;58:247‐58.
Wen 2010 {published data only}
    1. Wen X, Chen W, Gans KM, Colby SM, Lu C, Liang C, et al. Two‐year effects of a school‐based prevention programme on adolescent cigarette smoking in Guangzhou, China: a cluster randomised trial. International Journal of Epidemiology 2010;39(3):860‐76. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Wen XZ, Chen WQ, Lu CY, Liang CH, Zhang CX, Han K, et al. Process evaluation on a health promotion model regarding smoking prevention among Chinese secondary school students. Zhonghua Liu Xing Bing Xue Za Zhi 2007;28(3):224‐8. - PubMed
Werch 2005 {published data only}
    1. Werch C, Moore MJ, Diclemente CC, Bledsoe R, Jobli E. A multi health behavior intervention integrating physical activity and substance use prevention for adolescents. Prevention Science 2005;6(3):213‐26. - PubMed
Zheng 2005 {published data only}
    1. Zheng PP, Fu YY, Yang SY, Cui HW, Guo FX, Ye TT, et al. Smoking prevention and control among elementary school students in Xuhui district, Shanghai. Zhonghua liuxingbingxue zazhi 2005;26(10):782‐5. - PubMed

References to studies excluded from this review

Aarø 1983 {published data only}
    1. Aarø LE, Bruland E, Hauknes A, Løchsen PM. Smoking among Norwegian schoolchildren 1975‐1980. III. The effect of anti‐smoking campaigns. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology 1983;24:277‐83. - PubMed
    1. Aarø LE, Hauknes A, Berglund EL. Smoking among Norwegian schoolchildren 1975‐1980. II. The influence of the social environment. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology 1981;22:291‐309. - PubMed
Abernathy 1994 {published data only}
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Andrews 1984 {published data only}
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Arciti 1986 {published data only}
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Arora 2011 {published data only}
    1. Arora M, Stigler MH, Reddy KS. Effectiveness of health promotion in preventing tobacco use among adolescents in India: research evidence informs the National Tobacco Control Programme in India. Global Health Promotion 2011;18(1):9‐12. - PMC - PubMed
Aslan 2007 {published data only}
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Aßhauer 1999 {published data only}
    1. Aßhauer M, Hanewinkel R. Life skills training and drug prevention in the primary school: Development, implementation and evaluation of primary prevention [Lebenskompetenzfðrderung und Suchtprophylaxe in der Grundschule: Entwicklung, Implementation und Evaluation primär ‐präventiver Unterrichtseinheiten]. Zeitschrift für Gesundheitspsychologie 1999;7(4):158‐71.
Ausems 2002 {published data only}
    1. Ausems M, Mesters I, Breukelen G, Vries H. Do Dutch 11‐12 years old who never smoke, smoke experimentally or smoke regularly have different demographic backgrounds and perceptions of smoking?. European Journal of Public Health 2003;13(2):160‐7. - PubMed
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Banerjee 2007 {published data only}
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Barrueco 1998 {published data only}
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Beaglehole 1978 {published data only}
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Bergamaschi 2000 {published data only}
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Biglan 1987a {published data only}
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Bloor 2000 {published data only}
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Botvin 1989a {published data only}
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Botvin 1989b {published data only}
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Botvin 1992 {published data only}
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Botvin 1997 {published data only}
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Botvin 2000 {published data only}
    1. Botvin GJ, Griffin KW, Diaz T, Scheier LM, Williams C, Epstein JA. Preventing illicit drug use in adolescents: Long‐term follow‐up data from a randomised control trial of a school population. Addictive Behaviors 2000;25:769‐74. - PubMed
Botvin 2003 {published data only}
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Calafat 1995 {published data only}
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Charlton 1986 {published data only}
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Danhua 2005 {published data only}
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Dielman 1985 {published data only}
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Dupont 1984 {published data only}
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Epstein 2000a {published data only}
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Evans 1978 {published data only}
    1. Evans RI, Rozelle RM, Maxwell SE, Raines BE, Dill CA, Guthrie TJ. Social modelling films to deter smoking in adolescents: Results of a three‐year field investigation. Journal of Applied Psychology 1981;66(4):399‐414.
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Evans 1981 {published data only}
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Flay 1987 {published data only}
    1. Flay BR, Hansen WB, Johnson CA, Collins LM, Dent CW, Dwyer KM, et al. Implementaton effectiveness of a social influences smoking prevention program using schools and television. Health Education Research 1987;2(4):385‐400.
Flay 2004 {published data only}
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Frydman 1985 {published data only}
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Gilchrist 1987 {published data only}
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Gillies 1984 {published data only}
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Gislason 1995 {published data only}
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Gohlke 1989 {published data only}
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Gomez 2009 {published data only}
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Gomez Fraguela 2003 {published data only}
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Gordon 1997 {published data only}
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Gritz 1992 {published data only}
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Hanewinkel 2003 {published data only}
    1. Hanewinkel R, Wiborg G. Primary and secondary prevention of smoking in adolescence: Effects of the "Be Smart ‐ Don't Start" campaign [Primär‐ und Sekundärprävention des Rauchens im Jugendalter: Effekte der Kampagne "Be Smart ‐ Don't Start."]. Gesundheitswesen 2002;64:492‐8. - PubMed
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Hanewinkel 2004 {published data only}
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Hansen 1982 {published data only}
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Perry 1999 {published data only}
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Price 1992 {published data only}
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