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Meta-Analysis
. 2013 Apr 30;2013(4):CD004937.
doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD004937.pub2.

Effect of longer-term modest salt reduction on blood pressure

Feng J He  1 , Jiafu Li, Graham A Macgregor
Affiliations
Meta-Analysis

Effect of longer-term modest salt reduction on blood pressure

Feng J He et al. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. .

Abstract

Background: A reduction in salt intake lowers blood pressure (BP) and, thereby, reduces cardiovascular risk. A recent meta-analysis by Graudal implied that salt reduction had adverse effects on hormones and lipids which might mitigate any benefit that occurs with BP reduction. However, Graudal's meta-analysis included a large number of very short-term trials with a large change in salt intake, and such studies are irrelevant to the public health recommendations for a longer-term modest reduction in salt intake. We have updated our Cochrane meta-analysis.

Objectives: To assess (1) the effect of a longer-term modest reduction in salt intake (i.e. of public health relevance) on BP and whether there was a dose-response relationship; (2) the effect on BP by sex and ethnic group; (3) the effect on plasma renin activity, aldosterone, noradrenaline, adrenaline, cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein (LDL), high-density lipoprotein (HDL) and triglycerides.

Search methods: We searched MEDLINE, EMBASE, Cochrane Hypertension Group Specialised Register, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, and reference list of relevant articles.

Selection criteria: We included randomised trials with a modest reduction in salt intake and duration of at least 4 weeks.

Data collection and analysis: Data were extracted independently by two reviewers. Random effects meta-analyses, subgroup analyses and meta-regression were performed.

Main results: Thirty-four trials (3230 participants) were included. Meta-analysis showed that the mean change in urinary sodium (reduced salt vs usual salt) was -75 mmol/24-h (equivalent to a reduction of 4.4 g/d salt), the mean change in BP was -4.18 mmHg (95% CI: -5.18 to -3.18, I (2)=75%) for systolic and -2.06 mmHg (95% CI: -2.67 to -1.45, I (2)=68%) for diastolic BP. Meta-regression showed that age, ethnic group, BP status (hypertensive or normotensive) and the change in 24-h urinary sodium were all significantly associated with the fall in systolic BP, explaining 68% of the variance between studies. A 100 mmol reduction in 24 hour urinary sodium (6 g/day salt) was associated with a fall in systolic BP of 5.8 mmHg (95%CI: 2.5 to 9.2, P=0.001) after adjusting for age, ethnic group and BP status. For diastolic BP, age, ethnic group, BP status and the change in 24-h urinary sodium explained 41% of the variance between studies. Meta-analysis by subgroup showed that, in hypertensives, the mean effect was -5.39 mmHg (95% CI: -6.62 to -4.15, I (2)=61%) for systolic and -2.82 mmHg (95% CI: -3.54 to -2.11, I (2)=52%) for diastolic BP. In normotensives, the mean effect was -2.42 mmHg (95% CI: -3.56 to -1.29, I (2)=66%) for systolic and -1.00 mmHg (95% CI: -1.85 to -0.15, I (2)=66%) for diastolic BP. Further subgroup analysis showed that the decrease in systolic BP was significant in both whites and blacks, men and women. Meta-analysis of hormone and lipid data showed that the mean effect was 0.26 ng/ml/hr (95% CI: 0.17 to 0.36, I (2)=70%) for plasma renin activity, 73.20 pmol/l (95% CI: 44.92 to 101.48, I (2)=62%) for aldosterone, 31.67 pg/ml (95% CI: 6.57 to 56.77, I (2)=5%) for noradrenaline, 6.70 pg/ml (95% CI: -0.25 to 13.64, I (2)=12%) for adrenaline, 0.05 mmol/l (95% CI: -0.02 to 0.11, I (2)=0%) for cholesterol, 0.05 mmol/l (95% CI: -0.01 to 0.12, I (2)=0%) for LDL, -0.02 mmol/l (95% CI: -0.06 to 0.01, I (2)=16%) for HDL, and 0.04 mmol/l (95% CI: -0.02 to 0.09, I (2)=0%) for triglycerides.

Authors' conclusions: A modest reduction in salt intake for 4 or more weeks causes significant and, from a population viewpoint, important falls in BP in both hypertensive and normotensive individuals, irrespective of sex and ethnic group. With salt reduction, there is a small physiological increase in plasma renin activity, aldosterone and noradrenaline. There is no significant change in lipid levels. These results provide further strong support for a reduction in population salt intake. This will likely lower population BP and, thereby, reduce cardiovascular disease. Additionally, our analysis demonstrates a significant association between the reduction in 24-h urinary sodium and the fall in systolic BP, indicating the greater the reduction in salt intake, the greater the fall in systolic BP. The current recommendations to reduce salt intake from 9-12 to 5-6 g/d will have a major effect on BP, but are not ideal. A further reduction to 3 g/d will have a greater effect and should become the long term target for population salt intake.

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Conflict of interest statement

None known.

Figures

1
1
PRISMA  Flow  Diagram
2
2
Risk of bias graph: review authors' judgements about each risk of bias item presented as percentages across all included studies.
3
3
Funnel plot to explore publication bias (systolic BP). The vertical line is at the mean effect size. Precision is the reciprocal of the standard error of the change in systolic BP.
4
4
Funnel plot to explore publication bias (diastolic BP). The vertical line is at the mean effect size. Precision is the reciprocal of the standard error of the change in diastolic BP.
5
5
Cardiovascular disease (CVD) events in a meta‐analysis of randomised salt reduction trials using fixed effect model with normotensives and hypertensives combined. TOHP I: Trial of Hypertension Prevention, phase 1. TOHP II: Trial of Hypertension Prevention, phase 2. TONE: Trial of Nonpharmacologic Interventions in Elderly.
1.1
1.1. Analysis
Comparison 1 Change in BP, Outcome 1 Change in Systolic BP.
1.2
1.2. Analysis
Comparison 1 Change in BP, Outcome 2 Change in Diastolic BP.
1.3
1.3. Analysis
Comparison 1 Change in BP, Outcome 3 Change in Systolic BP by Ethnic Group.
1.4
1.4. Analysis
Comparison 1 Change in BP, Outcome 4 Change in Diastolic BP by Ethnic Group.
1.5
1.5. Analysis
Comparison 1 Change in BP, Outcome 5 Change in Systolic BP by Sex.
1.6
1.6. Analysis
Comparison 1 Change in BP, Outcome 6 Change in Diastolic BP by Sex.
2.1
2.1. Analysis
Comparison 2 Change in hormone & lipid, Outcome 1 Change in PRA.
2.2
2.2. Analysis
Comparison 2 Change in hormone & lipid, Outcome 2 Change in Aldosterone.
2.3
2.3. Analysis
Comparison 2 Change in hormone & lipid, Outcome 3 Change in Noradrenaline.
2.4
2.4. Analysis
Comparison 2 Change in hormone & lipid, Outcome 4 Change in Adrenaline.
2.5
2.5. Analysis
Comparison 2 Change in hormone & lipid, Outcome 5 Change in Cholesterol.
2.6
2.6. Analysis
Comparison 2 Change in hormone & lipid, Outcome 6 Change in LDL.
2.7
2.7. Analysis
Comparison 2 Change in hormone & lipid, Outcome 7 Change in HDL.
2.8
2.8. Analysis
Comparison 2 Change in hormone & lipid, Outcome 8 Change in Triglyceride.
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Costa 1981 {published data only}
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Cuzzola 2001 {published data only}
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Damasceno 1999 {published data only}
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Davis 1994 {published data only}
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Davrath 1999 {published data only}
    1. Davrath LR, Gotshall RW, Tucker A, Sadeh WZ, Luckasen GJ, Downes TR, Coonts CC. Moderate sodium restriction does not alter lower body negative pressure tolerance. Aviat Space Environ Med 1999;70:577‐82. - PubMed
Delemarre 2000 {published data only}
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Del Rio 1990 {published data only}
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Del Rio 1993 {published data only}
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Dickinson 2009 {published data only}
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Dimsdale 1990 {published data only}
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Dubbert 1995 {published data only}
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Egan 1991(b) {published data only}
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Gillies 1984 {published data only}
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Hargreaves 1989 {published data only}
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Haythornthwaite 1992 {published data only}
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Jula 1992(b) {published data only}
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Petrie 1998 {published data only}
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Ruilope 1992 {published data only}
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