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Meta-Analysis
. 2013 Jul 24;2013(7):CD008307.
doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD008307.pub2.

Pharmacotherapy for the prevention of chronic pain after surgery in adults

Luis Enrique Chaparro  1 , Shane A Smith, R Andrew Moore, Philip J Wiffen, Ian Gilron
Affiliations
Meta-Analysis

Pharmacotherapy for the prevention of chronic pain after surgery in adults

Luis Enrique Chaparro et al. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. .

Abstract

Background: Chronic pain can often occur after surgery, substantially impairing patients' health and quality of life. It is caused by complex mechanisms that are not yet well understood. The predictable nature of most surgical procedures has allowed for the conduct of randomized controlled trials of pharmacological interventions aimed at preventing chronic postsurgical pain.

Objectives: The primary objective was to evaluate the efficacy of systemic drugs for the prevention of chronic pain after surgery by examining the proportion of patients reporting pain three months or more after surgery. The secondary objective was to evaluate the safety of drugs administered for the prevention of chronic pain after surgery.

Search methods: We identified randomized controlled trials (RCTs) of various systemically administered drugs for the prevention of chronic pain after surgery from CENTRAL, MEDLINE, EMBASE and handsearches of other reviews and trial registries. The most recent search was performed on 17 July 2013.

Selection criteria: Included studies were double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized trials involving adults and evaluating one or more drugs administered systemically before, during or after surgery, or both, which measured pain three months or more after surgery.

Data collection and analysis: Data collected from each study included the study drug name, dose, route, timing and duration of dosing; surgical procedure; proportion of patients reporting any pain three months or more after surgery, reporting at least 4/10 or moderate to severe pain three months or more after surgery; and proportion of participants dropping out of the study due to treatment-emergent adverse effects.

Main results: We identified 40 RCTs of various pharmacological interventions including intravenous ketamine (14 RCTs), oral gabapentin (10 RCTs), oral pregabalin (5 RCTs), non-steroidal anti-inflammatories (3 RCTs), intravenous steroids (3 RCTs), oral N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) blockers (3 RCTs), oral mexiletine (2 RCTs), intravenous fentanyl (1 RCT), intravenous lidocaine (1 RCT), oral venlafaxine (1 RCT) and inhaled nitrous oxide (1 RCT). Meta-analysis suggested a modest but statistically significant reduction in the incidence of chronic pain after surgery following treatment with ketamine but not gabapentin or pregabalin. Results with ketamine should be viewed with caution since most of the included trials were small (that is < 100 participants per treatment arm), which could lead to the overestimation of treatment effect.

Authors' conclusions: Additional evidence from better, well designed, large-scale trials is needed in order to more rigorously evaluate pharmacological interventions for the prevention of chronic pain after surgery. Furthermore, available evidence does not support the efficacy of gabapentin, pregabalin, non-steroidal anti-inflammatories, intravenous steroids, oral NMDA blockers, oral mexiletine, intravenous fentanyl, intravenous lidocaine, oral venlafaxine or inhaled nitrous oxide for the prevention of chronic postoperative pain.

PubMed Disclaimer

Conflict of interest statement

IG and RAM have consulted for various pharmaceutical companies. IG and RAM have received lecture fees from pharmaceutical companies that market analgesics and other healthcare interventions. IG, RAM, and PW have received research support from charities, government and industry sources at various times, but no such support was received for this work.

Figures

1
1
Study flow diagram.
2
2
Risk of bias graph: review authors' judgements about each risk of bias item presented as percentages across all included studies.
3
3
Risk of bias summary: review authors' judgements about each risk of bias item for each included study.
4
4
Forest plot of comparison: 1 Ketamine versus placebo comparisons, outcome: 1.5 Incidence of any pain at 6 months (all studies).
5
5
Forest plot of comparison: 2 Gabapentin versus placebo, outcome: 2.1 Incidence of any pain at 3 months (all studies).
6
6
Forest plot of comparison: 3 Pregabalin versus placebo, outcome: 3.1 Incidence of any pain at 3 months follow‐up (all studies).
1.1
1.1. Analysis
Comparison 1: Ketamine versus placebo comparisons, Outcome 1: Incidence of any pain at 3 months (all studies)
1.2
1.2. Analysis
Comparison 1: Ketamine versus placebo comparisons, Outcome 2: Incidence of any pain at 3 months (drug administration ≤ 24 hours)
1.3
1.3. Analysis
Comparison 1: Ketamine versus placebo comparisons, Outcome 3: Incidence of any pain at 3 months (drug administration > 24 hours)
1.4
1.4. Analysis
Comparison 1: Ketamine versus placebo comparisons, Outcome 4: Incidence of any pain at 4 months
1.5
1.5. Analysis
Comparison 1: Ketamine versus placebo comparisons, Outcome 5: Incidence of any pain at 6 months (all studies)
1.6
1.6. Analysis
Comparison 1: Ketamine versus placebo comparisons, Outcome 6: Incidence of any pain at 6 months (drug administration ≤ 24 hours)
1.7
1.7. Analysis
Comparison 1: Ketamine versus placebo comparisons, Outcome 7: Incidence of any pain at 6 months (drug administration > 24 hours)
1.8
1.8. Analysis
Comparison 1: Ketamine versus placebo comparisons, Outcome 8: Incidence of Moderate or severe pain at 6 months
1.9
1.9. Analysis
Comparison 1: Ketamine versus placebo comparisons, Outcome 9: Incidence of any pain at 12 months
2.1
2.1. Analysis
Comparison 2: Gabapentin versus placebo, Outcome 1: Incidence of any pain at 3 months (all studies)
2.2
2.2. Analysis
Comparison 2: Gabapentin versus placebo, Outcome 2: Incidence of any pain at 3 months (drug administration ≤ 24 hours)
2.3
2.3. Analysis
Comparison 2: Gabapentin versus placebo, Outcome 3: Incidence of any pain at 3 months (drug administration > 24 hours)
2.4
2.4. Analysis
Comparison 2: Gabapentin versus placebo, Outcome 4: Incidence of any pain at 6 months
2.5
2.5. Analysis
Comparison 2: Gabapentin versus placebo, Outcome 5: Mean Pain Score at 6 months (continuous data)
3.1
3.1. Analysis
Comparison 3: Pregabalin versus placebo, Outcome 1: Incidence of any pain at 3 months follow up (all studies)
3.2
3.2. Analysis
Comparison 3: Pregabalin versus placebo, Outcome 2: Incidence of any pain at 3 months (drug administration ≤ 24 hours)
3.3
3.3. Analysis
Comparison 3: Pregabalin versus placebo, Outcome 3: Incidence of any pain at 3 months (drug administration > 24 hours)
3.4
3.4. Analysis
Comparison 3: Pregabalin versus placebo, Outcome 4: Incidence of any pain at 6 months
3.5
3.5. Analysis
Comparison 3: Pregabalin versus placebo, Outcome 5: Incidence of moderate to severe pain at 3 months
3.6
3.6. Analysis
Comparison 3: Pregabalin versus placebo, Outcome 6: Incidence of moderate to severe pain at 6 months
3.7
3.7. Analysis
Comparison 3: Pregabalin versus placebo, Outcome 7: Incidence of any pain at 12 months follow up
4.1
4.1. Analysis
Comparison 4: Venlafaxine versus placebo comparisons, Outcome 1: Mean Pain Score at 6 months (continuous data)
See this image and copyright information in PMC

Update of

References

References to studies included in this review

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Kadic 2009 {published data only}
    1. Kadic L, Boonstra MC, De Waal Malefijt MC, Lako SJ, Van Egmond J, Driessen JJ. Continuous femoral nerve block after total knee arthroplasty? Acta Anaesthesiologica Scandinavica 2009;53(7):914-20. [PMID: ] - PubMed
Kamencic 2008 {published data only}
    1. Kamencic H, Thiel JA. Pentoxifylline after conservative surgery for endometriosis: a randomized, controlled trial. Journal of Minimally Invasive Gynecology 2008;15(1):62-6. [PMID: ] - PubMed
Kampe 2003 {published data only}
    1. Kampe S, Kiencke P, Delis A, Auweiler M, Konig DP, Kasper SM. The continuous epidural infusion of ropivacaine 0.1% with 0.5 microg x mL(-1) sufentanil provides effective postoperative analgesia after total hip replacement: a pilot study. Canadian Journal of Anaesthesia = Journal Canadien d'Anesthesie 2003;50(6):580-5. [PMID: ] - PubMed
Katz 2004 {published data only}
    1. Katz J, Cohen L. Preventive analgesia is associated with reduced pain disability 3 weeks but not 6 months after major gynecologic surgery by laparotomy. Anesthesiology 2004;101(1):169-74. [PMID: ] - PubMed
Kim 2011 {published data only}
    1. Kim SY, Song JW, Park B, Park S, An YJ, Shim YH. Pregabalin reduces post-operative pain after mastectomy: a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled study. Acta Anaesthesiologica Scandinavica 2011;55(3):290-6. [PMID: ] - PubMed
Kollender 2008 {published data only}
    1. Kollender Y, Bickels J, Stocki D, Maruoani N, Chazan S, Nirkin A, et al. Subanaesthetic ketamine spares postoperative morphine and controls pain better than standard morphine does alone in orthopaedic-oncological patients. European Journal of Cancer (Oxford, England) 2008;44(7):954-62. [PMID: ] - PubMed
Koninckx 2008 {published data only}
    1. Koninckx PR, Craessaerts M, Timmerman D, Cornillie F, Kennedy S. Anti-TNF-alpha treatment for deep endometriosis-associated pain: a randomized placebo-controlled trial. Human Reproduction (Oxford, England) 2008;23(9):2017-23. [PMID: ] - PMC - PubMed
Lambert 2001 {published data only}
    1. Lambert AW, Dashfield AK, Cosgrove C, Wilkins DC, Walker AJ, Ashley S. Randomized prospective study comparing preoperative epidural and intraoperative perineural analgesia for the prevention of postoperative stump and phantom limb pain following major amputation. Regional Anesthesia and Pain Medicine 2001;26(4):316-21. [PMID: ] - PubMed
Lampl 2002 {published data only}
    1. Lampl C, Yazdi K, Roper C. Amitriptyline in the prophylaxis of central poststroke pain. Preliminary results of 39 patients in a placebo-controlled, long-term study. Stroke 2002;33(12):3030-2. [PMID: ] - PubMed
Lavand'homme 2005 {published data only}
    1. Lavand'homme P, De Kock M, Waterloos H. Intraoperative epidural analgesia combined with ketamine provides effective preventive analgesia in patients undergoing major digestive surgery. Anesthesiology 2005;103(4):813-20. [PMID: ] - PubMed
Lynch 2003 {published data only}
    1. Lynch ME, Clark AJ, Sawynok J. Intravenous adenosine alleviates neuropathic pain: a double blind placebo controlled crossover trial using an enriched enrolment design. Pain 2003;103(1-2):111-7. [PMID: ] - PubMed
Maier 2003 {published data only}
    1. Maier C, Dertwinkel R, Mansourian N, Hosbach I, Schwenkreis P, Senne I, et al. Efficacy of the NMDA-receptor antagonist memantine in patients with chronic phantom limb pain--results of a randomized double-blinded, placebo-controlled trial. Pain 2003;103(3):277-83. [PMID: ] - PubMed
Martin 2008 {published data only}
    1. Martin F, Martinez V, Mazoit JX, Bouhassira D, Cherif K, Gentili ME, et al. Antiinflammatory effect of peripheral nerve blocks after knee surgery: clinical and biologic evaluation. Anesthesiology 2008;109(3):484-90. [PMID: ] - PMC - PubMed
Morin 2005 {published data only}
    1. Morin AM, Kratz CD, Eberhart LH, Dinges G, Heider E, Schwarz N, et al. Postoperative analgesia and functional recovery after total-knee replacement: comparison of a continuous posterior lumbar plexus (psoas compartment) block, a continuous femoral nerve block, and the combination of a continuous femoral and sciatic nerve block. Regional Anesthesia and Pain Medicine 2005;30(5):434-45. [PMID: ] - PubMed
Nehler 2007 {published data only}
    1. Nehler MR, Brass EP, Anthony R, Dormandy J, Jiao J, McNamara TO, et al. Adjunctive parenteral therapy with lipo-ecraprost, a prostaglandin E1 analog, in patients with critical limb ischemia undergoing distal revascularization does not improve 6-month outcomes. Journal of Vascular Surgery 2007;45(5):953-60; discussion 960-1. [PMID: ] - PubMed
Nesher 2008 {published data only}
    1. Nesher N, Serovian I, Marouani N, Chazan S, Weinbroum AA. Ketamine spares morphine consumption after transthoracic lung and heart surgery without adverse hemodynamic effects. Pharmacological Research 2008;58(1):38-44. [PMID: ] - PubMed
Nesher 2009 {published data only}
    1. Nesher N, Ekstein MP, Paz Y, Marouani N, Chazan S, Weinbroum AA. Morphine with adjuvant ketamine vs higher dose of morphine alone for immediate postthoracotomy analgesia. Chest 2009;136(1):245-52. [PMID: ] - PubMed
Nikolajsen 1997 {published data only}
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Nikolajsen 2000 {published data only}
    1. Nikolajsen L, Gottrup H, Kristensen AG, Jensen TS. Memantine (a N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor antagonist) in the treatment of neuropathic pain after amputation or surgery: a randomized, double-blinded, cross-over study. Anesthesia and Analgesia 2000;91(4):960-6. [PMID: ] - PubMed
Nissman 2008 {published data only}
    1. Nissman SA, Tractenberg RE, Babbar-Goel A, Pasternak JF. Oral gabapentin for the treatment of postoperative pain after photorefractive keratectomy. American Journal of Ophthalmology 2008;145(4):623-9. [PMID: ] - PubMed
Obata 1999 {published data only}
    1. Obata H, Saito S, Fujita N, Fuse Y, Ishizaki K, Goto F. Epidural block with mepivacaine before surgery reduces long-term post-thoracotomy pain. Canadian Journal of Anaesthesia = Journal Canadien d'Anesthesie 1999;46(12):1127-32. [PMID: ] - PubMed
Parker 2006 {published data only}
    1. Parker JD, Leondires M, Sinaii N, Premkumar A, Nieman LK, Stratton P. Persistence of dysmenorrhea and nonmenstrual pain after optimal endometriosis surgery may indicate adenomyosis. Fertility and Sterility 2006;86(3):711-5. [PMID: ] - PubMed
Perniola 2009 {published data only}
    1. Perniola A, Gupta A, Crafoord K, Darvish B, Magnuson A, Axelsson K. Intraabdominal local anaesthetics for postoperative pain relief following abdominal hysterectomy: a randomized, double-blind, dose-finding study. European Journal of Anaesthesiology 2009;26(5):421-9. [PMID: ] - PubMed
Reuben 2004 {published data only}
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Reuben 2006 {published data only}
    1. Reuben SS, Ekman EF, Raghunathan K, Steinberg RB, Blinder JL, Adesioye J. The effect of cyclooxygenase-2 inhibition on acute and chronic donor-site pain after spinal-fusion surgery. Regional Anesthesia and Pain Medicine 2006;31(1):6-13. [PMID: ] - PubMed
Reuben 2007 {published data only}
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    1. Reuben SS, Buvenandran A, Katz B, Kroin JS. A prospective randomized trial on the role of perioperative celecoxib administration for total knee arthroplasty: improving clinical outcomes. Anesthesia and Analgesia 2008;106(4):1258-64, table of contents. [PMID: ] - PubMed
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Ryu 2011 {published data only}
    1. Ryu HG, Lee CJ, Kim YT, Bahk JH. Preemptive low-dose epidural ketamine for preventing chronic postthoracotomy pain: a prospective, double-blinded, randomized, clinical trial. The Clinical Journal of Pain 2011;27(4):304-8. [PMID: ] - PubMed
Salengros 2010 {published data only}
    1. Salengros JC, Huybrechts I, Ducart A, Faraoni D, Marsala C, Barvais L, et al. Different anesthetic techniques associated with different incidences of chronic post-thoracotomy pain: low-dose remifentanil plus presurgical epidural analgesia is preferable to high-dose remifentanil with postsurgical epidural analgesia. Journal of Cardiothoracic and Vascular Anesthesia 2010;24(4):608-16. [PMID: ] - PubMed
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Senturk 2002 {published data only}
    1. Senturk M, Ozcan PE, Talu GK, Kiyan E, Camci E, Ozyalcin S, et al. The effects of three different analgesia techniques on long-term postthoracotomy pain. Anesthesia and Analgesia 2002;94(1):11-5, table of contents. [PMID: ] - PubMed
Sesti 2007 {published data only}
    1. Sesti F, Pietropolli A, Capozzolo T, Broccoli P, Pierangeli S, Bollea MR, et al. Hormonal suppression treatment or dietary therapy versus placebo in the control of painful symptoms after conservative surgery for endometriosis stage III-IV. A randomized comparative trial. Fertility and Sterility 2007;88(6):1541-7. [PMID: ] - PubMed
Singh 2007 {published data only}
    1. Singh K, Phillips FM, Kuo E, Campbell M. A prospective, randomized, double-blind study of the efficacy of postoperative continuous local anesthetic infusion at the iliac crest bone graft site after posterior spinal arthrodesis: a minimum of 4-year follow-up. Spine 2007;32(25):2790-6. [PMID: ] - PubMed
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    1. Solak O, Metin M, Esme H, Solak O, Yaman M, Pekcolaklar A, et al. Effectiveness of gabapentin in the treatment of chronic post-thoracotomy pain. European Journal of Cardio-Thoracic Surgery 2007;32(1):9-12. [PMID: ] - PubMed
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    1. Wai EK, Sathiaseelan S, O'Neil J, Simchison BL. Local administration of morphine for analgesia after autogenous anterior or posterior iliac crest bone graft harvest for spinal fusion: a prospective, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Anesthesia and Analgesia 2010;110(3):928-33. [PMID: ] - PubMed
Waikakul 1999 {published data only}
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References to studies awaiting assessment

Bilgen 2012 {published data only}
    1. Bilgen S, Köner O, Türe H, Menda F, Fiçicioğlu C, Aykaç B. Effect of three different doses of ketamine prior to general anaesthesia on postoperative pain following Caesarean delivery: a prospective randomized study.. Minerva Anesthesiology 2012 Apr;78(4):442-9. - PubMed
Cohen 2013 {published data only}
    1. Cohen SP, Galvagno SM, Plunkett A, Harris D, Kurihara C, Turabi A, Rehrig S, Buckenmaier CC 3rd, Chelly JE. A multicenter, randomized, controlled study evaluating preventive etanercept on postoperative pain after inguinal hernia repair.. Anesthesia and Analgesia 2013 Feb;116(2):455-62. - PubMed
Fassoulaki 2012 {published data only}
    1. Fassoulaki A, Melemeni A, Tsaroucha A, Paraskeva A. Perioperative pregabalin for acute and chronic pain after abdominal hysterectomy or myomectomy: a randomised controlled trial.. European Journal of Anaesthesiology 2012 Nov;29(11):531-6. - PubMed
Martinez 2013 {published data only}
    1. Martinez V, Szekely B, Lemarié J, Martin F, Gentili M, Ben Ammar S, Lepeintre JF, Garreau de Loubresse C, Chauvin M, Bouhassira D, Fletcher D. The efficacy of a glial inhibitor, minocycline, for preventing persistent pain after lumbar discectomy: A randomized, double-blind, controlled study.. Pain. 2013 Aug;154(8):1197-203. - PubMed
Mendola 2012 {published data only}
    1. Mendola C, Cammarota G, Netto R, Cecci G, Pisterna A, Ferrante D, Casadio C, Della Corte F. S+ -ketamine for control of perioperative pain and prevention of post thoracotomy pain syndrome: a randomized, double-blind study.. Minerva Anesthesiology 2012 Jul;78(7):757-66. - PubMed
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References to ongoing studies

NCT00129597 {unpublished data only}
    1. Effect of Ketalar to Prevent Postoperative Chronic Pain After Mastectomy. Ongoing study. December 2004. Contact author for more information.
NCT00442546 {unpublished data only}
    1. Efficacy And Safety Of Pregabalin For Pain Following Total Knee Replacement. Ongoing study. May 2007. Contact author for more information.
NCT00468845 {unpublished data only}
    1. Study Of The Efficacy And Safety Of Pregabalin Compared To Placebo For Treatment Of Post-Surgical Pain From Hysterectomy. Ongoing study. June 2007. Contact author for more information.
NCT00551135 {unpublished data only}
    1. Surgical Pain After Inguinal Hernia Repair (SPAIHR). Ongoing study. January 2008. Contact author for more information.
NCT00583869 {unpublished data only}
    1. Role of Pregabalin in Treatment of Post-Op Pain in Fracture Patients (LYRICA). Ongoing study. May 2007. Contact author for more information.
NCT00618423 {unpublished data only}
    1. The Effect of Perioperative Ketamine on Acute and Chronic Pain After Major Back Surgery (KetaDol). Ongoing study. October 2007. Contact author for more information.
NCT00631891 {unpublished data only}
    1. Pregabalin in Treating Pain in Women Undergoing Mastectomy or Lumpectomy. Ongoing study. December 2006. Contact author for more information.
NCT00663962 {unpublished data only}
    1. Pregabalin and Post-thoracotomy Pain. Ongoing study. April 2008. Contact author for more information.
NCT00762099 {unpublished data only}
    1. Perioperative Pregabalin Use, Rehabilitation, Pain Outcomes and Anxiety Following Hip Surgery (RCT). Ongoing study. May 2009. Contact author for more information.
NCT00852683 {unpublished data only}
    1. The Effects of Peri-Operative Pregabalin on Post-Operative Pain Following Breast Cancer Surgery With Axillary Node Dissection: A Pilot Study. Ongoing study. May 2008. Contact author for more information.
NCT00905437 {unpublished data only}
    1. Study To Investigate The Effectiveness Of Pregabalin For Management Of Patients Undergoing Total Hip Replacement. Ongoing study. November 2009. Contact author for more information.
NCT00967135 {unpublished data only}
    1. Efficacy of Perioperative Pregabalin in Reducing the Incidence of Chronic Neuropathic Pain and Postthoracotomy Syndrome.. Ongoing study. June 2010. Contact author for more information.
NCT01022840 {unpublished data only}
    1. The Preemptive Analgetic Potency of Low Dose S-Ketamine (Miniket). Ongoing study. February 2009. Contact author for more information.
NCT01116583 {unpublished data only}
    1. The Effect of Gabapentin on Thoracic Epidural Analgesia Following Thoracotomy (GABATEA). Ongoing study. May 2011. Contact author for more information.
NCT01204242 {unpublished data only}
    1. IV Lidocaine for Patients Undergoing Primary Breast Cancer Surgery: Effects on Postoperative Recovery and Cancer. Ongoing study. August 2009. Contact author for more information.
NCT01243801 {unpublished data only}
    1. Prevention of Persistent Postsurgical Pain After Thoracotomy. Ongoing study. September 2008. Contact author for more information.
NCT01296347 {unpublished data only}
    1. Low Dose Peri-operative IV Ketamine for Chronic Post-surgery Pain Prevention. Ongoing study. April 2011. Contact author for more information.
NCT01359059 {unpublished data only}
    1. Pre- Versus Post-incisional Pregabalin for Postoperative Pain Attenuation and Analgesics Spare in Orthopedic Oncologic Patients. Ongoing study. June 2011. Contact author for more information.
NCT01391858 {unpublished data only}
    1. Postoperative Pain and Morphine Consumption After Mastectomy - Lyrica. Ongoing study. December 2006. Contact author for more information.
NCT01480765 {unpublished data only}
    1. Preventing Pain After Heart Surgery. Ongoing study. November 2011. Contact author for more information.

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