Skip to main page content
U.S. flag

An official website of the United States government

Dot gov

The .gov means it’s official.
Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

Https

The site is secure.
The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

Access keys NCBI Homepage MyNCBI Homepage Main Content Main Navigation
Meta-Analysis
. 2013 Sep 12;2013(9):CD004366.
doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD004366.pub6.

Exercise for depression

Gary M Cooney  1 , Kerry Dwan, Carolyn A Greig, Debbie A Lawlor, Jane Rimer, Fiona R Waugh, Marion McMurdo, Gillian E Mead
Affiliations
Meta-Analysis

Exercise for depression

Gary M Cooney et al. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. .

Abstract

Background: Depression is a common and important cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Depression is commonly treated with antidepressants and/or psychological therapy, but some people may prefer alternative approaches such as exercise. There are a number of theoretical reasons why exercise may improve depression. This is an update of an earlier review first published in 2009.

Objectives: To determine the effectiveness of exercise in the treatment of depression in adults compared with no treatment or a comparator intervention.

Search methods: We searched the Cochrane Depression, Anxiety and Neurosis Review Group's Controlled Trials Register (CCDANCTR) to 13 July 2012. This register includes relevant randomised controlled trials from the following bibliographic databases: The Cochrane Library (all years); MEDLINE (1950 to date); EMBASE (1974 to date) and PsycINFO (1967 to date). We also searched www.controlled-trials.com, ClinicalTrials.gov and the WHO International Clinical Trials Registry Platform. No date or language restrictions were applied to the search.We conducted an additional search of the CCDANCTR up to 1st March 2013 and any potentially eligible trials not already included are listed as 'awaiting classification.'

Selection criteria: Randomised controlled trials in which exercise (defined according to American College of Sports Medicine criteria) was compared to standard treatment, no treatment or a placebo treatment, pharmacological treatment, psychological treatment or other active treatment in adults (aged 18 and over) with depression, as defined by trial authors. We included cluster trials and those that randomised individuals. We excluded trials of postnatal depression.

Data collection and analysis: Two review authors extracted data on primary and secondary outcomes at the end of the trial and end of follow-up (if available). We calculated effect sizes for each trial using Hedges' g method and a standardised mean difference (SMD) for the overall pooled effect, using a random-effects model risk ratio for dichotomous data. Where trials used a number of different tools to assess depression, we included the main outcome measure only in the meta-analysis. Where trials provided several 'doses' of exercise, we used data from the biggest 'dose' of exercise, and performed sensitivity analyses using the lower 'dose'. We performed subgroup analyses to explore the influence of method of diagnosis of depression (diagnostic interview or cut-off point on scale), intensity of exercise and the number of sessions of exercise on effect sizes. Two authors performed the 'Risk of bias' assessments. Our sensitivity analyses explored the influence of study quality on outcome.

Main results: Thirty-nine trials (2326 participants) fulfilled our inclusion criteria, of which 37 provided data for meta-analyses. There were multiple sources of bias in many of the trials; randomisation was adequately concealed in 14 studies, 15 used intention-to-treat analyses and 12 used blinded outcome assessors.For the 35 trials (1356 participants) comparing exercise with no treatment or a control intervention, the pooled SMD for the primary outcome of depression at the end of treatment was -0.62 (95% confidence interval (CI) -0.81 to -0.42), indicating a moderate clinical effect. There was moderate heterogeneity (I² = 63%).When we included only the six trials (464 participants) with adequate allocation concealment, intention-to-treat analysis and blinded outcome assessment, the pooled SMD for this outcome was not statistically significant (-0.18, 95% CI -0.47 to 0.11). Pooled data from the eight trials (377 participants) providing long-term follow-up data on mood found a small effect in favour of exercise (SMD -0.33, 95% CI -0.63 to -0.03).Twenty-nine trials reported acceptability of treatment, three trials reported quality of life, none reported cost, and six reported adverse events.For acceptability of treatment (assessed by number of drop-outs during the intervention), the risk ratio was 1.00 (95% CI 0.97 to 1.04).Seven trials compared exercise with psychological therapy (189 participants), and found no significant difference (SMD -0.03, 95% CI -0.32 to 0.26). Four trials (n = 300) compared exercise with pharmacological treatment and found no significant difference (SMD -0.11, -0.34, 0.12). One trial (n = 18) reported that exercise was more effective than bright light therapy (MD -6.40, 95% CI -10.20 to -2.60).For each trial that was included, two authors independently assessed for sources of bias in accordance with the Cochrane Collaboration 'Risk of bias' tool. In exercise trials, there are inherent difficulties in blinding both those receiving the intervention and those delivering the intervention. Many trials used participant self-report rating scales as a method for post-intervention analysis, which also has the potential to bias findings.

Authors' conclusions: Exercise is moderately more effective than a control intervention for reducing symptoms of depression, but analysis of methodologically robust trials only shows a smaller effect in favour of exercise. When compared to psychological or pharmacological therapies, exercise appears to be no more effective, though this conclusion is based on a few small trials.

PubMed Disclaimer

Conflict of interest statement

Marion McMurdo is co‐director of D.D. Developments, a University of Dundee not‐for‐profit organisation which provides exercise classes for older people.

Gillian E Mead developed a course on exercise after stroke which is licensed to Later Life Training. She receives royalty payments from Later Life Training, which are paid into an account at University of Edinburgh to support further research. She personally receives royalties from a book about Exercise and Fitness Training after Stroke. She receives expenses for speaking at conferences on exercise and fatigue after stroke.

Kerry Dwan: none known.

Carolyn A Greig: none known.

Debbie A Lawlor: none known.

Gary Cooney: None known

Jane Rimer: none known.

Fiona Waugh: none known.

Figures

1
1
Study flow diagram, showing the results of the searches for this current update.
2
2
'Risk of bias' graph: review authors' judgements about each risk of bias item presented as percentages across all included studies.
3
3
'Risk of bias' summary: review authors' judgements about each risk of bias item for each included study.
4
4
Funnel plot of comparison: 1 Exercise versus control, outcome: 1.1 Reduction in depression symptoms post‐treatment.
1.1
1.1. Analysis
Comparison 1 Exercise versus 'control', Outcome 1 Reduction in depression symptoms post‐treatment.
1.2
1.2. Analysis
Comparison 1 Exercise versus 'control', Outcome 2 Reduction in depression symptoms follow‐up.
1.3
1.3. Analysis
Comparison 1 Exercise versus 'control', Outcome 3 Completed intervention or control.
1.4
1.4. Analysis
Comparison 1 Exercise versus 'control', Outcome 4 Quality of life.
2.1
2.1. Analysis
Comparison 2 Exercise versus psychological therapies, Outcome 1 Reduction in depression symptoms post‐treatment.
2.2
2.2. Analysis
Comparison 2 Exercise versus psychological therapies, Outcome 2 Completed exercise or pyschological therapies.
2.3
2.3. Analysis
Comparison 2 Exercise versus psychological therapies, Outcome 3 Quality of life.
3.1
3.1. Analysis
Comparison 3 Exercise versus bright light therapy, Outcome 1 Reduction in depression symptoms post‐treatment.
4.1
4.1. Analysis
Comparison 4 Exercise versus pharmacological treatments, Outcome 1 Reduction in depression symptoms post‐treatment.
4.2
4.2. Analysis
Comparison 4 Exercise versus pharmacological treatments, Outcome 2 Completed exercise or antidepressants.
4.3
4.3. Analysis
Comparison 4 Exercise versus pharmacological treatments, Outcome 3 Quality of Life.
5.1
5.1. Analysis
Comparison 5 Reduction in depression symptoms post‐treatment: Subgroup analyses, Outcome 1 Exercise vs control subgroup analysis: type of exercise.
5.2
5.2. Analysis
Comparison 5 Reduction in depression symptoms post‐treatment: Subgroup analyses, Outcome 2 Exercise vs control subroup analysis: intensity.
5.3
5.3. Analysis
Comparison 5 Reduction in depression symptoms post‐treatment: Subgroup analyses, Outcome 3 Exercise vs control subroup analysis: number of sessions.
5.4
5.4. Analysis
Comparison 5 Reduction in depression symptoms post‐treatment: Subgroup analyses, Outcome 4 Exercise vs control subroup analysis: diagnosis of depression.
5.5
5.5. Analysis
Comparison 5 Reduction in depression symptoms post‐treatment: Subgroup analyses, Outcome 5 Exercise vs control subgroup analysis: type of control.
6.1
6.1. Analysis
Comparison 6 Exercise versus control: sensitivity analyses, Outcome 1 Reduction in depression symptoms post‐treatment: peer‐reviewed journal publications and doctoral theses only.
6.2
6.2. Analysis
Comparison 6 Exercise versus control: sensitivity analyses, Outcome 2 Reduction in depression symptoms post‐treatment: studies published as abstracts or conference proceedings only.
6.3
6.3. Analysis
Comparison 6 Exercise versus control: sensitivity analyses, Outcome 3 Reduction in depression symptoms post‐treatment: studies with adequate allocation concealment.
6.4
6.4. Analysis
Comparison 6 Exercise versus control: sensitivity analyses, Outcome 4 Reduction in depression symptoms post‐treatment: studies using intention‐to‐treat analysis.
6.5
6.5. Analysis
Comparison 6 Exercise versus control: sensitivity analyses, Outcome 5 Reduction in depression symptoms post‐treatment: studies with blinded outcome assessment.
6.6
6.6. Analysis
Comparison 6 Exercise versus control: sensitivity analyses, Outcome 6 Reduction in depression symptoms post‐treatment: allocation concealment, intention‐to‐treat, blinded outcome.
6.7
6.7. Analysis
Comparison 6 Exercise versus control: sensitivity analyses, Outcome 7 Reduction in depression symptoms post‐treatment: Lowest dose of exercise.
See this image and copyright information in PMC

Update of

Comment in

  • Exercise for depression.
    Cooney G, Dwan K, Mead G. Cooney G, et al. JAMA. 2014 Jun 18;311(23):2432-3. doi: 10.1001/jama.2014.4930. JAMA. 2014. PMID: 24938566

Similar articles

See all similar articles

Cited by

See all "Cited by" articles

References

References to studies included in this review

Blumenthal 1999 {published data only}
    1. Babyak M, Blumenthal JA, Herman S, Khatri P, Doraiswamy M, Moore K, et al. Exercise treatment for major depression: maintenance of therapeutic benefit at 10 months. Psychosomatic Medicine 2000;62(5):633‐8. - PubMed
    1. Blumenthal JA, Babyak MA, Moore KA, Craighead WE, Herman S, Khatri P, et al. Effects of exercise training on older patients with major depression. Archives of Internal Medicine 1999;159(19):2349‐56. - PubMed
    1. Herman S, Blumenthal JA, Babyak M, Khatri P, Craighead WE, Krishnan KR, et al. Exercise therapy for depression in middle‐aged and older adults: predictors of early dropout and treatment failure. Health Psychology 2002;21(6):533‐63. - PubMed
    1. Khatri P, Blumenthal JA, Babyak MA, Craighead WE, Herman S, Baldewitz T, et al. Effects of exercise training on cognitive functioning among depressed older men and women. Journal of Aging and Physical Activity 2001;9:43‐57.
Blumenthal 2007 {published data only}
    1. Blumenthal JA, Babyak MA, Doraiswamy PM, Watkins L, Hoffman BM, Barbour KA, et al. Exercise and pharmacotherapy in the treatment of major depressive disorder. Psychosomatic Medicine 2007;69(7):587‐96. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Hoffman BM, Babyak MA, Craighead WE, Sherwood A, Doraiswamy PM, Coons MJ, et al. Exercise and pharmacotherapy in patients with major depression: one‐year follow‐up of the SMILE study. Psychosomatic Medicine 2011;73(2):127‐33. - PMC - PubMed
Blumenthal 2012a {published data only}
    1. Blumenthal J, Sherwood A, Babyak M, Watkins L, Smith PJ, Hoffman B, et al. Exercise and pharmacological treatment of depressive symptoms in patients with coronary heart disease. Journal of the American College of Cardiology 2012;60(12):1053‐63. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Blumenthal JA, Sherwood A, Rogers SD, Babyak MA, Doraiswamy M, Watkins L, et al. Understanding prognostic benefits of exercise and antidepressant therapy for persons with depression and heart disease: the UPBEAT study‐rationale, design, and methodological issues. Clinical Trials 2007;4:548. - PMC - PubMed
Bonnet 2005 {published data only}
    1. Bonnet LH. Effects of Aerobic Exercise in Combination with Cognitive Therapy on Self Reported Depression [dissertation]. Hempstead, NY: Hofstra University, 2005.
Brenes 2007 {published data only}
    1. Brenes GA, Williamson JD, Messier SP, Rejeski WJ, Pahor M, Ip E, et al. Treatment of minor depression in older adults: a pilot study comparing sertraline and exercise. Aging and Mental Health 2007;11(1):61‐8. - PMC - PubMed
Chu 2008 {published data only}
    1. Chu IH. Effect of Exercise Intensity During Aerobic Training on Depressive Symptoms in Initially Sedentary Depressed Women [dissertation]. Columbus, OH: The Ohio State University, 2008.
    1. Chu IH, Buckworth J, Kirby TE, Emery CF. Effect of exercise intensity on depressive symptoms in women. Mental Health and Physical Activity 2009;2(1):37‐43.
Doyne 1987 {published data only}
    1. Doyne EJ, Ossip‐Klein DJ, Bowman ED, Osborn KM, McDougall‐Wilson IB, Neimeyer RA. Running versus weight lifting in the treatment of depression. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 1987;55(5):748‐54. - PubMed
    1. Ossip‐Klein DJ, Doyne EJ, Bowman ED, Osborn KM, McDougall‐Wilson IB, Neimeyer RA. Effects of running or weight lifting on self‐concept in clinically depressed women. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 1989;7(1):158‐61. - PubMed
Dunn 2005 {published data only}
    1. Dunn AL, Trivedi MH. Exercise and depression: meeting standards to establish treatment efficacy. Proceedings of the 63rd Annual Meeting of the American Psychosomatic Society, 2005 March 2‐5, Vancouver, Canada. McLean, VA: American Psychosomatic Society, 2005:A19.
    1. Dunn AL, Trivedi MH, Kampert JB, Clark CG, Chambliss HO. Exercise treatment for depression: efficacy and dose response. American Journal of Preventive Medicine 2005;28(1):1‐8. - PubMed
    1. Dunn AL, Trivedi MH, Kampert JB, Clark CG, Chambliss HO. The DOSE study: a clinical trial to examine efficacy and dose response of exercise as a treatment for depression. Controlled Clinical Trials 2002;23:584‐603. - PubMed
    1. Kitzman HE, Trivedi MH, Dunn AL, Galper DI, Kampert JB, Greer TL. The effect of exercise dose on quality of life in depressed adults. Proceedings of the 63rd Annual Meeting of the American Psychosomatic Society, 2005 March 2‐5, Vancouver, Canada. McLean, VA: American Psychosomatic Society, 2005:A110.
Epstein 1986 {published data only}
    1. Epstein D. Aerobic Activity Versus Group Cognitive Therapy: an Evaluative Study of Contrasting Interventions for the Alleviation of Clinical Depression [dissertation]. Reno: University of Nevada, 1986.
Fetsch 1979 {published data only}
    1. Fetsch RJ. A comparison of the psychological effects of running and transactional analysis stroking for the relief of reactive depression in adults [thesis]. Dissertation Abstracts International 1980;40(10‐B):4999.
Foley 2008 {published data only}
    1. Foley LS, Prapavessis H, Osuch EA, Pace JA, Murphy BA, Podolinsky NJ. An examination of potential mechanisms for exercise as a treatment for depression: a pilot study. Mental Health and Physical Activity 2008;1(2):69‐73.
Fremont 1987 {published data only}
    1. Fremont J. The Separate and Combined Effects of Cognitively Based Counseling and Aerobic Exercise for the Treatment of Mild and Moderate Depression [dissertation]. PA, USA: Pennsylvania State University, 1983.
    1. Fremont J, Wilcoxon Craighead L. Aerobic exercise and cognitive therapy in the treatment of dysphoric moods. Cognitive Therapy and Research 1987;11:241‐51.
Gary 2010 {published data only}
    1. Gary RA, Dunbar SB, Higgins MK, Musselman DL, Smith AL. Combined exercise and cognitive behavioral therapy improves outcomes in patients with heart failure. Journal of Psychosomatic Research 2010;69(2):119‐31. - PMC - PubMed
Greist 1979 {published data only}
    1. Greist JH, Klein MH, Eischens RR, Faris J, Gurman AS, Morgan WP. Running as a treatment for depression. Proceedings of the 131st Annual Meeting of the American Psychiatric Association; 1978 May 8‐12; Atlanta, GA. 1978.
    1. Greist JH, Klein MH, Eischens RR, Faris J, Gurman AS, Morgan WP. Running as treatment for depression. Comprehensive Psychiatry 1979;20(1):41‐54. - PubMed
    1. Greist JH, Klein MH, Eischens RR, Faris J, Gurman AS, Morgan WP. Running through your mind. Journal of Psychosomatic Research 1978;22(4):259‐94. - PubMed
Hemat‐Far 2012 {published data only}
    1. Hemat‐Far A, Shahsavari A, Mousavi SR. Effects of selected aerobic exercises on the depression and concentrations of plasma serotonin in the depressed female students aged 18 to 25. Journal of Applied Research 2012;12(1):47‐52.
Hess‐Homeier 1981 {published data only}
    1. Hess‐Homeier MJ. A Comparison of Beck's Cognitive Therapy and Jogging as Treatments for Depression [dissertation]. Missoula: University of Montana, 1981.
Hoffman 2010 {published data only}
    1. Hoffman JM, Bell KR, Powell JM, Behr J, Dunn EC, Dikmen S, et al. A randomized controlled trial of exercise to improve mood after traumatic brain injury. American Academy of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation 2010;2:911‐9. - PubMed
    1. Wise ER, Hoffman JM, Powell JM, Bombadier CH, Bell KR. Benefits of exercise maintenance after traumatic brain injury. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation 2012;93(8):1319‐23. - PubMed
Klein 1985 {published data only}
    1. Klein MH, Greist JH, Gurman RA, Neimeyer RA, Lesser DP, Bushnell NJ. A comparative outcome study of group psychotherapy vs. exercise treatments for depression. International Journal of Mental Health 1985;13:148‐77.
Knubben 2007 {published data only}
    1. Knubben K, Reischies FM, Adli M, Schlattmann P, Bauer M, Dimeo F. A randomised controlled study on the effects of a short‐term endurance training programme in patients with major depression. British Journal of Sports Medicine 2007;41:29‐33. - PMC - PubMed
Krogh 2009 {published data only}
    1. Krogh J, Nordentoft M, Mohammad‐Nezhad M, Westrin A. Growth hormone, prolactin and cortisol response to exercise in patients with depression. Journal of Affective Disorders 2010;125:189‐97. - PubMed
    1. Krogh J, Petersen L, Timmermann M, Saltin B, Nordentoft M. Design paper: The DEMO trial: a randomized, parallel‐group, observer‐blinded clinical trial of aerobic versus non‐aerobic versus relaxation training for patients with light to moderate depression [NCT00103415]. Contemporary Clinical Trials 2007;28(1):79‐89. - PubMed
    1. Krogh J, Saltin B, Gluud C, Nordentoft M. The DEMO Trial: a randomized, parallel‐group, observer‐blinded clinical trial of strength versus aerobic versus relaxation training for patients with mild to moderate depression. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 2009;70(6):790‐800. - PubMed
Martinsen 1985 {published data only}
    1. Martinsen EW, Medhus A, Sandvik L. Effects of aerobic exercise on depression: a controlled study. British Medical Journal 1985;291(6488):109. - PMC - PubMed
Mather 2002 {published data only}
    1. Mather AS, Rodrigues C, Guthrie MF, McHarg AM, Reid IC, McMurdo MET. Effects of exercise on depressive symptoms in older adults with poorly responsive depressive disorder. British Journal of Psychiatry 2002;180:411‐5. - PubMed
McCann 1984 {published data only}
    1. McCann IL, Holmes DS. Influence of aerobic exercise on depression. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 1984;46(5):1142‐7. - PubMed
McNeil 1991 {published data only}
    1. McNeil JK, LeBlanc EM, Joyner M. The effect of exercise on depressive symptoms in the moderately depressed elderly. Psychology and Aging 1991;6(3):487‐8. - PubMed
Mota‐Pereira 2011 {published data only}
    1. Mota‐Pereira J, Silverio J, Carvalho S, Ribiero JC, Fonte D, Ramos J. Moderate exercise improves depression parameters in treatment‐resistant patients with major depressive disorder. Journal of Psychiatric Research 2011;45:1005‐11. - PubMed
Mutrie 1988 {published data only}
    1. Mutrie N. Exercise as a Treatment for Depression within a National Health Service [dissertation]. PA, USA: Pennsylvania State University, 1986.
    1. Mutrie N. Exercise as a treatment for moderate depression in the UK National Health Service [abstract]. Proceedings of Sport, Health Psychology and Exercise Symposium, Sports Council and Health Education Authority, London 1988:96‐105.
Nabkasorn 2005 {published data only}
    1. Nabkasorn C, Miyai N, Sootmongkol A, Junprasert S, Yamamoto H, Arita M, et al. Effects of physical exercise on depression, neuroendocrine stress hormones and physiological fitness in adolescent females with depressive symptoms. European Journal of Public Health 2005;16:179‐84. - PubMed
Orth 1979 {published data only}
    1. Orth DK. Clinical Treatments for Depression [dissertation]. Morgantown, WV: West Virginia University, 1979.
Pilu 2007 {published data only}
    1. Carta MG, Hardoy MC, Pilu A, Sorba M, Floris AL, Mannu FA, et al. Improving physical quality of life with group physical activity in the adjunctive treatment of major depressive disorder. Clinical Practice and Epidemiology in Mental Health 2008;4:1. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Pilu A, Sorba M, Hardoy MC, Floris AL, Mannu F, Seruis ML, et al. Efficacy of physical activity in the adjunctive treatment of major depressive disorders: preliminary results. Clinical Practice and Epidemiology in Mental Health 2007;3(8):doi:10.1186/1745‐0179‐3‐8. - PMC - PubMed
Pinchasov 2000 {published data only}
    1. Pinchasov BB, Shurgaja AM, Grischin OV, Putilov AA. Mood and energy regulation in seasonal and non‐seasonal depression before and after midday treatment with physical exercise or bright light. Psychiatry Research 2000;94:29‐42. - PubMed
Reuter 1984 {published data only}
    1. Reuter M, Mutrie N, Harris DV. Running as an adjunct to counseling in the treatment of depression [unpublished manuscript]. Pennsylvania State University, 1984.
Schuch 2011 {published data only}
    1. Schuch FB, Vasconcelos‐Moreno MP, Borowsky C, Fleck MP. Exercise and severe depression: preliminary results of an add‐on study. Journal of Affective Disorders 2011;133:615‐8. - PubMed
Setaro 1985 {published data only}
    1. Setaro JL. Aerobic Exercise and Group Counseling in the Treatment of Anxiety and Depression [dissertation]. Maryland: University of Baltimore, 1985.
Shahidi 2011 {published data only}
    1. Shahidi M. Reply to the letter to the editor re Shahidi M, Mojtahed A, Modabbernia a, et al. 2011. Laughter yoga versus group exercise program in elderly depressed women: A randomized controlled trial. Int j geriatr psychiatr 26: 322‐327. First things first! Caveats in research on "laughter yoga". International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry 2012;27(8):875‐6. - PubMed
    1. Shahidi M, Mojtahed A, Modabbernia A, Mojtahed M, Shafiabady A, Delavar A, et al. Laughter yoga versus group exercise program in elderly depressed women: a randomized controlled trial. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry 2011;26(3):322‐7. - PubMed
Sims 2009 {published data only}
    1. Sims J, Galea M, Taylor N, Dodd K, Jespersen S, Joubert L, et al. Regenerate: assessing the feasibility of a strength‐training program to enhance the physical and mental health of chronic post stroke patients with depression. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry 2009;24(1):76‐83. - PubMed
    1. Teoh V, Sims J, Milgrom J. Psychosocial predictors of quality of life following a stroke. Topics in Stroke Rehabilitation 2009;16(2):157‐66. - PubMed
Singh 1997 {published data only}
    1. Singh NA, Clements KM, Fiatarone MA. A randomized controlled trial of progressive resistance training in depressed elders. Journals of Gerontology. Series A, Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences 1997;52(1):M27‐35. - PubMed
    1. Singh NA, Clements KM, Fiatarone MA. A randomized controlled trial of the effect of exercise on sleep. Sleep 1997;20(2):95‐100. - PubMed
Singh 2005 {published data only}
    1. Singh NA, Stavrions TM, Scarbek Y, Galambos G, Liber C, Fiatorone Singh MA. A randomised controlled trial of high versus low intensity weight training versus general practitioner care for clinical depression in older adults. Journals of Gerontology. Series A, Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences 2005;60A:768‐76. - PubMed
Veale 1992 {published data only}
    1. Veale D, Fevre K, Pantelis C, Souza V, Mann A, Sargeant A. Aerobic exercise in the adjunctive treatment of depression: a randomized controlled trial. Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine 1992;85(9):541‐4. - PMC - PubMed
Williams 2008 {published data only}
    1. Williams CL, Tappen RM. Exercise training for depressed older adults with Alzheimer's disease. Aging and Mental Health 2008;12(1):72‐80. - PMC - PubMed

References to studies excluded from this review

Abascal 2008 {published data only}
    1. Abascal L. The Effect of Depression and Adherence in a Dietary and Physical Activity Intervention for Overweight and Obese Adults [dissertation]. University of California, San Diego and San Diego State University 2008.
Akandere 2011 {published data only}
    1. Ankandere M, Demir B. The effect of dance over depression. Collegium Antropologicum 2011;35(3):651‐6. - PubMed
Annesi 2010 {published data only}
    1. Annesi JJ, Gorjala S. Association of reduction in waist circumference with normalization of mood in obese women initiating exercise supported by the Coach Approach protocol. Southern Medical Journal 2010;103(6):517‐21. - PubMed
Arcos‐Carmona 2011 {published data only}
    1. Arcos‐Carmona IM, Castro‐Sanchez AM, Mataran‐Penarrocha GA, Gutierrez‐Rubio AB, Ramos‐Gonzalez E, Moreno‐Lorenzo C. Effects of aerobic exericise program and relaxation techniques on anxiety, quality of sleep, depression, and quality of life in patients with fibromyalgia: A randomised controlled trial. Medicina Clinica 2011;137(9):398‐401. - PubMed
Armstrong 2003 {published data only}
    1. Armstrong K, Edwards H. The effects of exercise and social support on mothers reporting depressive symptoms: a pilot randomised controlled trial. International Journal of Mental Health Nursing 2003;12:130‐8. - PubMed
Armstrong 2004 {published data only}
    1. Armstrong K, Edwards H. The effectiveness of a pram‐walking exercise programme in reducing depressive symptomatology for postnatal women. International Journal of Nursing Practice 2004;10:177‐94. - PubMed
Asbury 2009 {published data only}
    1. Asbury EA, Kanji N, Ernst E, Barbir M, Collins P. Autogenic training to manage symptomology in women with chest pain and normal coronary arteries. Menopause 2009;16(1):60‐5. - PubMed
Attia 2012 {published data only}
    1. Attia E. In the clinic eating disorders. Annals of Internal Medicine 2012;156(7):1‐16. - PubMed
Aylin 2009 {published data only}
    1. Aylin K, Arzu D, Sabri S, Handan TE, Ridvan A. The effect of combined resistance and home‐based walking exercises in type 2 diabetes patients. International Journal of Diabetes in Developing Countries 2009;29(4):159‐65. - PMC - PubMed
Badger 2007 {published data only}
    1. Badger T, Segrin C, Dorros SM, Meek P, Lopez AM. Depression with anxiety in women with breast cancer and their partners. Nursing Research 2007;56(1):44‐53. - PubMed
Baker 2006 {published data only}
    1. Baker MK, Kennedy DJ, Bohle PL, Campbell DS, Knapman L, Grady J, et al. Efficacy and feasibility of a novel tri‐modal robust exercise prescription in a retirement community: a randomised, controlled trial. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society 2007;55:1‐10. - PubMed
Bartholomew 2005 {published data only}
    1. Bartholomew JB, Morrison D, Ciccolo JT. Effects of acute exercise on mood and well‐being in patients with major depressive disorder. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 2005;37:2032‐7. - PubMed
Beffert 1993 {published data only}
    1. Beffert JW. Aerobic Exercise as Treatment of Depressive Symptoms in Early Adolescents [dissertation]. University of Northern Colorado 1993.
Berke 2007 {published data only}
    1. Berke EM, Gottlieb LM, Moudon AV, Larson EB. Protective association between neighborhood walkability and depression in older men. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society 2007;55:526‐33. - PubMed
Berlin 2003 {published data only}
    1. Berlin B, Moul DE, LePage JP, Mogge NL, Sellers DG. The effect of aquatic therapy interventions on patients with depression: a comparison study. Annual in Therapeutic Recreation 2003;12:7‐13.
Biddle 1989 {published data only}
    1. Biddle S. Exercise and the treatment of depression. British Journal of Hospital Medicine 1989;42(4):267. - PubMed
Blumenthal 2012b {published data only}
    1. Blumenthal JA, Babyak MA, O'Connor C, Keteyian S, Landzberg J, Howlett J, et al. Effects of exercise training on depressive symptoms in patients with chronic heart failure. JAMA 2012;308(5):465‐74. - PMC - PubMed
Bodin 2004 {published data only}
    1. Bodin T, Martinensen EW. Mood and self‐efficacy during acute exercise in clinical depression. A randomised controlled study. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology 2004;26:623‐33.
Bosch 2009 {published data only}
    1. Bosch PR, Traustadóttir T, Howard P, Matt KS. Functional and physiological effects of yoga in women with rheumatoid arthritis: a pilot study. Alternative Therapies in Health and Medicine 2009;15(4):24‐31. - PubMed
Bosscher 1993 {published data only}
    1. Bosscher RJ. Running and mixed physical exercises with depressed psychiatric patients. International Journal of Sport Psychology 1993;24:170‐84.
Bowden 2012 {published data only}
    1. Bowden D, Gaudry C, An SC, Gruzelier J. A comparative randomised controlled trial of the effects of brain wave vibration training, Iyengar yoga, and mindfulness on mood, well‐being, and salivary cortisol. Evidence‐based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 2012 Dec 15 [Epub ahead of print]. [DOI: 10.1155/2012/234713] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Boyll 1986 {published data only}
    1. Boyll JF. The Effects of Active and Passive Electronic Muscle Stimulation on Self‐concept, Anxiety and Depression [dissertation]. Flagstaff: Northern Arizona University, 1986.
Brittle 2009 {published data only}
    1. Brittle N, Patel S, Wright C, Baral S, Versfeld P, Sackley C. An exploratory cluster randomised controlled trial of group exercise on mobility and depression in care home residents. Clinical Rehabilitation 2009;23:146‐54. - PubMed
Bromby 2010 {published data only}
    1. Bromby S, Chandrasekara A. Study of the effect of physical activity on obese/overweight farm men and women on their psychological health and obesity related clinical co‐morbidities. Available from http://www.anzctr.org.au/ACTRN12610000827033.aspx (accessed May 2013). [ACTRN12610000827033]
Broocks 1997 {published data only}
    1. Broocks A, Meyer TF, George A, Pekrun G, Hillmer‐Vogel U, Hajak G, et al. Value of sports in treatment of psychiatric illness. Psychotherapie, Psychosomatik, Medizinische Psychologie 1997;47(11):379‐93. - PubMed
Brown 1992 {published data only}
    1. Brown SW, Welsh MC, Labbé EE, Vitulli WE, Kulkarni P. Aerobic exercise in the psychological treatment of adolescents. Perceptual and Motor Skills 1992;74:555‐60. - PubMed
Burbach 1997 {published data only}
    1. Burbach FR. The efficacy of physical activity interventions within mental health services: anxiety and depressive disorders. Journal of Mental Health 1997;6:543‐66.
Burton 2009 {published data only}
    1. Burton NW, Pakenham KI, Brown WJ. Evaluating the effectiveness of psychosocial resilience training for heart health, and the added value of promoting physical activity: a cluster randomized trial of the READY program. BMC Public Health 2009;9:427. - PMC - PubMed
Carney 1987 {published data only}
    1. Carney RM, Templeton B, Hong BA, Harter HR, Hagberg JM, Schechtman KB, et al. Exercise training reduces depression and increases the performance of pleasant activities in haemodialysis patients. Nephron 1987;47:194‐8. - PubMed
Chalder 2012 {published data only}
    1. Baxter H, Winder R, Chalder M, Wright C, Sherlock S, Haase A, et al. Physical activity as a treatment for depression: the TREAD randomised trial protocol. Trials 2010;11:105. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Chalder M, Wiles NJ, Campbell J, Hollinghurst SP, Haase AM, Taylor AH, et al. et al. Facilitated physical activity as a treatment for depressed adults: a randomised controlled clinical trial. BMJ 2012;344:e2758. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Chalder M, Wiles NJ, Campbell J, Hollinghurst SP, Searle A, Haase AM, et al. A pragmatic randomised controlled trial to evaluate the cost‐effectiveness of a physical activity intervention as a treatment for depression: The treating depression with physical activity (TREAD) trial. Health Technology Assessment 2012;16(10):1‐164. - PubMed
    1. Haase AM, Taylor AH, Fox KR, Thorp H, Lewis G. Rationale and development of the physical activity counselling intervention for a pragmatic TRial of Exercise and Depression in the UK (TREAD‐UK). Mental Health and Physical Activity 2010;3(2):85‐91.
    1. Searle A, Calnan M, Lewis G, Campbell J, Taylor A, Turner K. Patients' views of physical activity as treatment for depression: a qualitative study. British Journal of General Practice 2011;61(585):149‐56. - PMC - PubMed
Chan 2011 {published data only}
    1. Chan AS, Cheung M‐C, Tsui WJ, Sze SL, Shi D. Dejian mind‐body intervention on depressive mood of community‐dwelling adults: A randomised controlled trial. Evidence‐based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 2011:473961. - PMC - PubMed
Chen 2009 {published data only}
    1. Chen KM, Chen MH, Chao HC, Hung HM, Lin HS, Li CH. Sleep quality, depression state, and health status of older adults after silver yoga exercises: cluster randomized trial. International Journal of Nursing Studies 2009;46(2):154‐63. - PubMed
Chou 2004 {published data only}
    1. Chou K‐L, Lee PWH, Yu ECS, MacFarlane D, Cheng Y‐H, Chan SSC, et al. Effect of Tai Chi on depressive symptoms amongst Chinese older patients with depressive disorders: a randomised clinical trial. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry 2004;19:1105‐7. - PubMed
Chow 2012 {published data only}
    1. Chow YWY, Dorcas A, Siu AMH. The effects of qigong on reducing stress and anxiety and enhancing body‐mind well‐being. Mindfulness 2012;3(1):51‐59.
Christensen 2012 {published data only}
    1. Christensen SB, Dall CH, Prescott E, Pedersen SS, Gustafsson F. A high‐intensity exercise program improves exercise capacity, self‐perceived health, anxiety and depression in heart transplant recipients: A randomised, controlled trial. Journal of Heart and Lung Transplantation 2012;31(1):106‐7. - PubMed
Ciocon 2003 {published data only}
    1. Ciocon JO, Galindo‐Ciocon D. Loneliness and depression in nursing home setting: the effect of a restorative program. International Psychogeriatrics [abstracts from The International Psychogeriatric Association 11th International Congress, Chicago, United States. 17‐22 August 2003]. 2003; Vol. 15:S027‐04.
Clegg 2011 {published data only}
    1. Clegg A, Barber S, Young J, Forster A, Iliffe S. The home‐based older people's exercise (HOPE) trial: study protocol for a randomised controlled trial. Trials (Electronic Resource) 2011; Vol. 12, issue 143. - PMC - PubMed
Courneya 2007 {published data only}
    1. Courneya KS, Segal RJ, Gelmon K, Reid RD, Mackey JR, Friedenreich CM, et al. Six‐month follow‐up of patient‐related outcomes in a randomized controlled trial of exercise training during breast cancer chemotherapy. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers and Prevention 2007;16(12):2572‐8. - PubMed
Dalton 1980 {published data only}
    1. Dalton RB. Effects of Exercise and Vitamin B12 Supplementation on the Depression Scale Scores of a Wheelchair Confined Population [dissertation]. Columbia, MO: University of Missouri, 1981.
Demiralp 2011 {published data only}
    1. Demiralp M, Oflaz F. The effect of relaxation training on symptoms of anxiety and depression in patients with breast cancer. TAF Preventive Medicine Bulletin 2011;10(2):165‐74.
Deslandes 2010 {published data only}
    1. Deslandes AC, Morales H, Alves H, Pompeu FAMS, Silveira, H, Mouta, R, et al. Effect of aerobic training on EEG alpha asymmetry and depressive symptoms in the elderly: A 1‐year follow‐up study. Brazilian Journal of Medical and Biological Research 2010;43(6):585‐92. - PubMed
DeVaney 1991 {published data only}
    1. DeVaney SB. Comparative Effects of Exercise Reduction and Relaxation Training on Type A Behaviour and Dysphoric Mood States in Habitual Aerobic Exercisers [dissertation]. Greensboro: University of North Carolina, 1991.
DiLorenzo 1999 {published data only}
    1. DiLorenzo TM, Bargman EP, Stucky‐Ropp R, Brassington GS, Frensch PA, LaFontaine T. Long‐term effects of aerobic exercise on psychological outcomes. Preventive Medicine 1999;28(1):75‐85. - PubMed
Eby 1985 {published data only}
    1. Eby JM. An Investigation into the Effects of Aerobic Exercise on Anxiety and Depression [dissertation]. Toronto, ON: University of Toronto, 1985.
Elavsky 2007 {published data only}
    1. Elavsky S, McAuley E. Lack of perceived sleep improvement after 4‐month structured exercise programs. Menopause 2007;14(3):535‐40. - PubMed
Emery 1990a {published data only}
    1. Emery CF, Blumenthal JA. Perceived change among participants in an exercise program for older adults. Gerontologist 1990;30(4):516‐21. - PubMed
Emery 1990b {published data only}
    1. Emery CF, Gatz M. Psychological and cognitive effects of an exercise program for community‐residing older adults. Gerontologist 1990;30(2):184‐8. - PubMed
Ersek 2008 {published data only}
    1. Ersek M, Turner JA, Cain KC, Kemp CA. Results of a randomized controlled trial to examine the efficacy of a chronic pain self‐management group for older adults. Pain 2009;138(1):29‐40. - PMC - PubMed
Fitzsimmons 2001 {published data only}
    1. Fitzsimmons S. Easy rider wheelchair biking: a nursing‐recreation therapy clinical trial for the treatment of depression. Journal of Gerontological Nursing 2001;27:14‐23. - PubMed
Fox 2007 {published data only}
    1. Fox KR, Stathi A, McKenna J, Davis MG. Physical activity and mental well‐being in older people participating in the better ageing project. European Journal of Applied Physiology 2007;100:591‐602. - PubMed
Gary 2007 {published data only}
    1. Gary R, Lee SY. Physical function and quality of life in older women with diastolic heart failure: effects of a progressive walking program on sleep patterns. Progress in Cardiovascular Nursing 2007;22:72‐80. - PubMed
Ghroubi 2009 {published data only}
    1. Ghroubi S, Elleuch H, Chikh T, Kaffel N, Abid M, Elleuch MH. Physical training combined with dietary measures in the treatment of adult obesity. A comparison of two protocols. Annals of Physical and Rehabilitation Medicine 2009;52:394‐413. - PubMed
Gottlieb 2009 {published data only}
    1. Gottlieb SS, Kop WJ, Ellis SJ, Binkley P, Howlett J, O'Connor C, et al. Relation of depression to severity of illness in heart failure (from heart failure and a controlled trial investigating outcomes of exercise training [HF‐ACTION]). American Journal of Cardiology 2009;103:1285‐9. - PMC - PubMed
Gusi 2008 {published data only}
    1. Gusi N, Reyes MC, Gonzalez‐Guerrero JL, Herrera E, Garcia JM. Cost‐utility of a walking programme for moderately depressed, obese, or overweight elderly women in primary care: a randomised controlled trial. BMC Public Health 2008;8:231. - PMC - PubMed
Gustafsson 2009 {published data only}
    1. Gustafsson G, Lira CM, Johansson J, Wisén A, Wohlfart, Ekman R, et al. The acute response of plasma brain‐derived neurotrophic factor as a result of exercise in major depressive disorder. Psychiatry Research 2009;169:244‐8. - PubMed
Gutierrez 2012 {published data only}
    1. Villaverde Gutierrez C, Torres Luque G, Medina, Ábalos Medina GM, Argente del Castillo MJ, Guisado IM, Guisado Barrilao R, et al. Influence of exercise on mood in postmenopausal women. Journal of Clinical Nursing 2012;21(7‐8):923‐28. - PubMed
Haffmans 2006 {published data only}
    1. Haffmans PMJ, Kleinsman ACM, Weelden C, Huijbrechts IPAM, Hoencamp E. Comparing running therapy with physiotraining therapy in the treatment of mood disorders. Acta Neuropsychiatrica 2006;18:173‐6. - PubMed
Hannaford 1988 {published data only}
    1. Hannaford CP, Harrell EH, Cox K. Psychophysiological effects of a running program on depression and anxiety in a psychiatric population. Psychological Record 1988;38:37‐48.
Haugen 2007 {published data only}
    1. Haugen TS, Stavem K. Rehabilitation in a warm versus a colder climate in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Journal of Cardiopulmonary Rehabilitation and Prevention 2007;27:50‐6. - PubMed
Hedayati 2012 {published data only}
    1. Hedayati SS, Yalamanchili, Finkelstein FO. A practical approach to the treatment of depression in patients with chronic kidney disease and end‐stage renal disease. Kidney International 2012;81(3):247‐55. - PMC - PubMed
Hembree 2000 {published data only}
    1. Hembree LD. Exercise and its Effect on Hopelessness and Depression in an Aging Female Population in Eastern Oklahoma [dissertation]. Fayetteville: University of Arkansas, 2001.
Herrera 1994 {published data only}
    1. Herrera F. Efficacy of a psychological intervention for depression in patients on haemodialysis [Eficacia de la intervención psicológica en la depresión del paciente en hemodiálisis]. Psiquis 1994;15(4):175‐8.
Hughes 1986 {published data only}
    1. Hughes JR, Casal DC, Leon AS. Psychological effects of exercise: a randomised cross‐over trial. Journal of Psychosomatic Research 1986;30:355‐60. - PubMed
Hughes 2009 {published data only}
    1. Hughes CW, Trivedi MH, Cleaver J, Greer TL, Emslie GJ, Kennard B, et al. DATE: Depressed adolescents treated with exercise: study rationale and design for a pilot study. Mental Health and Physical Activity 2009;2:76‐85. - PMC - PubMed
Immink 2011 {published data only}
    1. Immink MA, Hillier SL. Yoga for chronic post‐stroke hemiparesis: A pilot randomised controlled trial. International Journal of stroke. 2011; Vol. Abstract of the 22nd Stroke Society of Australasia Annual Scientific Meeting.
Jacobsen 2012 {published data only}
    1. Jacobsen P, Phillips K, Jim H, Faul LA, Small B, Meade C, et al. Self‐directed stress management and exercise training for cancer chemotherapy patients. Psycho‐Oncology (abstracts of the 9th Annual Conference of the American Psychosocial Oncology Society). 2012; Vol. 21:17.
Johansson 2011 {published data only}
    1. Johansson M, Hassmen P, Jouper J. Acute effects of Qigong exercise on mood and anxiety. Sport, Exercise and Performance Psychology 2011;15(2):199‐207.
Karlsson 2007 {published data only}
    1. Karlsson MR, Edström‐Plüss C, Held C, Henriksson P, Billing E, Wallén NH. Effects of expanded cardiac rehabilitation on psychosocial status in coronary artery disease with focus on type D characteristics. Journal of Behavioral Medicine 2007;30:253‐61. - PubMed
Kerr 2008 {published data only}
    1. Kerr J, Patrick K, Norman G, Stein MB, Calfas K, Zabinski M, et al. Randomized control trial of a behavioral intervention for overweight women: impact on depressive symptoms. Depression and Anxiety 2008;25:555‐8. - PubMed
Kerse 2010 {published data only}
    1. Kerse N, Hayman KJ, Moyes SA, Peri K, Robinson E, Dowell A, et al. Home‐based activity program for older people with depressive symptoms: DeLLITE ‐ a randomized controlled trial. Annals of Family Medicine 2010;8:214‐23. - PMC - PubMed
Kim 2004 {published data only}
    1. Kim KB, Cohen SM, Oh HK, Sok SR. The effects of meridian exercise on anxiety, depression and self‐esteem of female college students in Korea. Holistic Nursing Practice 2004;18:230‐4. - PubMed
Knapen 2003 {published data only}
    1. Knapen J, Vliet P, Coppenolle H, David A, Peuskens J, Knapen K, et al. The effectiveness of two psychomotor therapy programmes on physical fitness and physical concept in nonpsychotic psychiatric patients: a randomised controlled trial. Clinical Rehabilitation 2003;17:637‐47. - PubMed
Knapen 2006 {published data only}
    1. Knapen J, Coppenolle H, Peuskens J, Pieters G, Knapen K. Comparison of changes in physical fitness, physical self‐concept, global self‐esteem, depression and anxiety following two different psychomotor therapy programs in non‐psychotic psychiatric inpatients. The Concept of Self in Education, Family and Sports. Nova, 2006:Chapter 4.
Kubesh 2003 {published data only}
    1. Kubesch S, Bretschneider V, Freudenmann R, Weiderhammer N, Lehmann M, Spitzer M, et al. Aerobic endurance exercise improves executive function in depressed patients. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 2003;64:1005‐12. - PubMed
Kulcu 2007 {published data only}
    1. Kulcu DG, Kurtais Y, Tur BS, Gülec S, Seckin B. The effect of cardiac rehabilitation on quality of life, anxiety and depression in patients with congestive heart failure. A randomized controlled trial, short‐term results. Europa Medicophysica 2007;43:489‐97. - PubMed
Kupecz 2001 {published data only}
    1. Kupecz DB. Effects of a Structured Exercise Program in Older Veteran Patients [dissertation]. Greely, CO: University of Northern Colorado, 2001.
Labbe 1988 {published data only}
    1. Labbe EE, Welsh MC, Delaney D. Effects of consistent aerobic exercise on the psychological functioning of women. Perceptual and Motor Skills 1988;67(3):919‐25. - PubMed
Lacombe 1988 {published data only}
    1. Lacombe JB. The Role of Aerobic Conditioning and Psychosocial Factors in Mediating the Effect of Exercise on Depression [dissertation]. Hempstead, NY: Hofstra University, 1987.
Lai 2006 {published data only}
    1. Lai SM, Studenski S, Richards L, Perera S, Reker D, Rigler S, et al. Therapeutic exercise and depressive symptoms after stroke. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society 2006;54(2):240‐7. - PubMed
Latimer 2004 {published data only}
    1. Latimer AE, Martin Ginis KA, Hicks AL, McCartney N. An examination of the mechanisms of exercise‐induced change in psychological well‐being among people with spinal cord injury. Journal of Rehabilitation Research and Development 2004;41(5):643‐51. - PubMed
Lautenschlager 2008 {published data only}
    1. Lautenschlager NT, Cox KL, Flicker L, Foster JK, Bockxmeer FM, Xiao J, et al. Effect of physical activity on cognitive function in older adults at risk for Alzheimer disease. JAMA 2008;300(9):1027‐37. - PubMed
Lavretsky 2011 {published data only}
    1. Lavretsky H, Alstein LL, Olmstead RE, Ercoli LM, Riparetti‐Brown M, Cyr NS, et al. Complementary use of tai chi chih augments escitalopram treatment of geriatric depression: A randomized controlled trial. American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry 2011;19(10):839‐50. - PMC - PubMed
Legrand 2009 {published data only}
    1. Legrand FD, Mille CR. The effects of 60 minutes of supervised weekly walking (in a single vs. 3‐5 session format) on depressive symptoms among older women: findings from a pilot randomized trial. Mental Health and Physical Activity 2009;2:71‐5.
Leibold 2010 {published data only}
    1. Leibold ML. Activites and adaptive strategies in late life depression: A qualitative study [thesis]. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering 2011; Vol. 71, issue 9‐B:5425.
Leppämäki 2002 {published data only}
    1. Leppämäki S, Haukka J, Lönnqvist J, Partonen T. Drop‐out and mood improvement: a randomised controlled trial with light exposure and physical exercise. BMC Psychiatry 2004;4:22. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Leppämäki SJ, Partonen TT, Hurme J, Haukka JK, Lonnqvist JK. Randomised trial of the efficacy of bright‐light exposure and aerobic exercise on depressive symptoms and serum lipids. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 2002;63(4):316‐21. - PubMed
Levendoglu 2004 {published data only}
    1. Levendoğlu F, Altintepe L, Okudan N, Uğurlu H, Gökbel H, Tonbul Z, et al. A twelve exercise program improves the psychological status, quality of life and work capcity in hemodialysis patients. Journal of Nephrology 2004;17:826‐32. - PubMed
Lever‐van Milligen 2012 {published data only}
    1. Lever‐van Milligen B. Mood treatment with antidepressants or running (MOTAR). http://www.trialregister.nl/admin/rctview.asp?TC=3460 June 2012. [NTR 3460] - PMC - PubMed
Levinger 2011 {published data only}
    1. Levinger I, Selig S, Goodman C, Jerums G, Stewart A, Hare DL. Resistance training improves depressive symptoms in individuals at high risk for type 2 diabetes. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 2011;25(8):2328‐33. - PubMed
Lin 2007 {published data only}
    1. Lin MR, Wolf SL, Hwang HF, Gong SY, Chen CY. A randomized, controlled trial of fall prevention programs and quality of life in older fallers. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society 2007;55:499‐506. - PubMed
Littbrand 2011 {published data only}
    1. Littbrand H, Carlsson M, Lundin‐Olsson L, Lindelof N, Haglin L, Gustafson Y, et al. Effect of a high‐intensity functional exercise program on functional balance: Preplanned subgroup analyses of a randomized controlled trial in residential care facilities. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society 2011;59(7):1274‐82. - PubMed
Lolak 2008 {published data only}
    1. Lolak S, Conors GL, Sherican MJ, Wise TN. Effects of progressive muscle relaxation training on anxiety and depression in patients enrolled in an outpatient pulmonary rehabilitation program. Psychotherapy and Pyschosomatics 2008;77(2):119‐25. - PubMed
Machado 2007 {published data only}
    1. Machado LAC, Azevedo DC, Capanema MB, Neto TN, Cerceau DM. Client‐centered therapy vs exercise therapy for chronic low back pain: a pilot randomized controlled trial in Brazil. Pain Medicine 2007;8(3):251‐8. - PubMed
MacMahon 1988 {published data only}
    1. MacMahon JR, Gross RT. Physical and psychological effects of aerobic exercise in delinquent adolescent males. American Journal of Diseases of Children 1988;142:1361‐6. - PubMed
Mailey 2010 {published data only}
    1. Mailey EL, Wojcicki TR, Moti RW, Hu L, Strauser DR, Collins KD, et al. Internet‐delivered physical activity intervention for college students with mental health disorders: a randomised pilot trial. Psychology Health and Medicine 2010;15(6):646‐59. - PubMed
Martin 2009 {published data only}
    1. Martin JK, Church TS, Thompson AM, Earnest CP, Blair SN. Exercise dose and quality of life. Archives of Internal Medicine 2009;169(3):269‐78. - PMC - PubMed
Martinsen 1988a {published data only}
    1. Martinsen EW. Exercise intervention studies in patients with anxiety and depressive disorders. Proceedings of Sport, Health Psychology and Exercise Symposium. London: Sports Council and Health Education Authority, 1988:77‐83.
Martinsen 1988b {published data only}
    1. Martinsen EW. Comparing aerobic and non‐aerobic forms of exercise in the treatment of clinical depression: a randomised trial. Proceedings of Sport, Health Psychology and Exercise Symposium. London: Sports Council and Health Education Authority, 1988:84‐95.
Martinsen 1989c {published data only}
    1. Martinsen EW. Aerobic exercise in the treatment of nonpsychotic mental disorders: an exploratory study. Nordic Journal of Psychiatry 1989;43:521‐9.
Martinsen 1993 {published data only}
    1. Martinsen EW. Therapeutic implications of exercise for clinically anxious and depressed patients. International Journal of Sport Psychology 1993;24:185‐99.
Matthews 2011 {published data only}
    1. Matthews MM, Hsu FC, Walkup MP, Barry LC, Patel KV, Blair SN. Depressive symptoms and physical performance in the lifestyle interventions and independence for elders pilot study. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society 2011;59(3):495‐500. - PMC - PubMed
McClure 2008 {published data only}
    1. McClure JB, Catz SL, Ludman EJ, Richards J, Riggs K, Grothaus L. Feasibility and acceptability of a multiple risk factor intervention: the Step Up randomized pilot trial. BMC Public Health 2011;11(167):doi:10.1186/1471‐2458‐11‐167. - PMC - PubMed
    1. NCT00644995. Step up wellness program for depression, physical inactivity, and smoking. ClinicalTrials.gov (http//www.clinicaltrials.gov) (accessed 2008). [NCT00644995]
Midtgaard 2011 {published data only}
    1. Midtgaard J, Stage M, Moller T, Andersen C, Quist M, Rorth M, et al. Exercise may reduce depression but not anxiety in self‐referred cancer patients undergoing chemotherapy. Post‐hoc analysis of data from the 'Body & Cancer' trial. Acta Oncologia 2011;50(5):660‐9. - PubMed
Milani 2007 {published data only}
    1. Milani RV, Lavie CJ. Impact of cardiac rehabilitation on depression and its associated mortality. American Journal of Medicine 2007;120:799‐806. - PubMed
Morey 2003 {published data only}
    1. Morey MC, Dubbert PM, Doyle ME, MacAller H, Crowley GM, Kuchibhatla M, et al. From supervised to unsupervised exercise: factors associated with exercise adherence. Journal of Aging and Physical Activity 2003;11(3):351‐68.
Motl 2004 {published data only}
    1. Motl RW, Konopack JF, McAuley E, Elavasky S, Jerome GJ, Marquez DX. Depressive symptoms among older adults: long‐term reduction after a physical activity intervention. Journal of Behavioral Medicine 2005;28(4):384‐94. - PubMed
Mudge 2008 {published data only}
    1. Mudge A. The impact of a disease management programme including a supervised exercise programme versus disease management alone on death, readmissions, depression and functional status on patients with a recent hospitalisation for heart failure. Australian New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry 2008.
Munro 1997 {published data only}
    1. Munro J, Brazier J, Davey R, Nicholl J. Physical activity for the over‐65s: could it be a cost‐effective exercise for the NHS?. Journal of Public Health Medicine 1997;19(4):397‐402. - PubMed
Mutrie 2007 {published data only}
    1. Mutrie N, Campbell AM, Whyte F, McConnachie A, Emslie C, Lee L, et al. Benefits of supervised group exercise programme for women being treated for early stage breast cancer: pragmatic randomised controlled trial. BMJ 2007;334(7592):517. - PMC - PubMed
NCT00416221 {published data only}
    1. NCT00416221. Development and a pilot study of the PACEPRO exercise and mood management program in depressed patients on escitalopram oxalate (Lexapro). http://clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT00416221 (accessed 2008). [NCT 00416221]
NCT00546221 {published data only}
    1. NCT00546221. Pragmatic randomised controlled trial of a preferred intensity exercise programme to improve physiological and associated psychological, social, and wellbeing outcomes of women living with depression. ClinicalTrials.gov (http://www.clinicaltrials.gov) 2007. [NCT00546221]
NCT00964054 {published data only}
    1. NCT00964054. Adapting exercise treatment for depression to adolescents: a pilot study [NCT00964054]. http://clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT00964054 (accessed 1 March 2013). [NCT00964054]
NCT01152086 {published data only}
    1. NCT01152086. The effects of regular mountain hiking on hopelessness in chronically suicidal patients. ClinicalTrials.gov (http://www.clinicaltrials.gov) (accessed 1st March 2013). [NCT01152086]
Neidig 1998 {published data only}
    1. Neidig JL. Aerobic Exercise Training: Effects on Depressive Symptoms in HIV Infected Adults (Immune Deficiency, Exercise Training) [dissertation]. Columbus, OH: The Ohio State University, 1998.
    1. Neidig JL, Smith BA, Brashers DE. Aerobic exercise training for depressive symptom management in adults living with HIV infection. Journal of Association of Nurses in AIDS Care 2003;14(2):30‐40. - PubMed
    1. Smith BA, Neidig JL, Nickel JT, Mitchell GL, Para MF, Fass RJ. Aerobic exercise: effects on parameters related to fatigue, dyspnea, weight and body composition in HIV‐infected adults. AIDS 2001;15(6):693‐701. - PubMed
Netz 1994 {published data only}
    1. Netz Y, Yaretzki A, Salganik I, Jacob T, Finkeltov B, Argov E. The effect of supervised physical activity on cognitive and affective state of geriatric and psychogeriatric in‐patients. Clinical Gerontologist 1994;15(1):47‐56.
Neuberger 2007 {published data only}
    1. Neuberger GB, Aaronson LS, Gajewski B, Embretson SE, Cagle PE, Loudon JK, et al. Predictors of exercise and effects of exercise on symptoms, function, aerobic fitness, and disease outcomes of rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis and Rheumatism 2007;57(6):943‐52. - PubMed
Nguyen 2001 {published data only}
    1. Nguyen HQ, Carrieri‐Kohlman V, Demir‐Deviren S, Stulbarg MS. Are the improvements in fatigue, vigor and depression sustained with a home walking programme?. Proceedings of the American Thoracic Society 2001 International Conference; May 18‐23; San Francisco, California. 2001.
O'Neil 2011 {published data only}
    1. O'Neil A, Hawkes AL, Chan B, Sanderson K, Forbes A, Hollingsworth B, et al. A randomised, feasibility trial of a tele‐health intervention for Acute Coronary Syndrome patients with depression ('Moodcare') : Study protocol. BMC Cardiovascular Disorders 2011 25th Feb [Epub ahead of print]; Vol. 11, issue 8. [DOI: 10.1186/1471-2261-11-8] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Oeland 2010 {published data only}
    1. Oeland AM, Laessoe U, Olesen AV, Munk‐Jorgensen P. Impact of exercise on patients with depression and anxiety. Nordic Journal of Pyschiatry 2010;64(3):210‐7. - PubMed
Oretzky 2006 {published data only}
    1. Oretzky S. The Effects of Yoga on Elevated Depressive and Somatic Symptoms in Young Adults [dissertation]. California School of Professional Psychology, Alliant International University 2006.
Ouzouni 2009 {published data only}
    1. Ouzouni S, Kouidi E, Grekas D, Deligiannis A. Effect of intradialytic exercise training on health‐related quality of life indices in haemodialysis patient. Clinical Rehabilitation 2009;23:53‐63. - PubMed
Pakkala 2008 {published data only}
    1. Pakkala I, Read S, Leinonen R, Hirvensalo M, Lintunen T, Rantanen T. The effects of physical activity counseling on mood among 75‐ to 81‐year‐old people: a randomized controlled trial. Preventive Medicine 2008;46:412‐8. - PubMed
Palmer 2005 {published data only}
    1. Palmer JA, Michiels K, Thigpen B. Effects of type of exercise on depression in recovering substance abusers. Perceptual and Motor Skills 1995;80(2):523‐30. - PubMed
Passmore 2006 {published data only}
    1. Passmore T, Lane S. Exercise as a treatment for depression: a therapeutic recreation intervention. American Journal of Recreation Therapy 2006;5(3):31‐41.
Peacock 2006 {published data only}
    1. Peacock J. A feasibility study to analyse the psychosocial benefits of green exercise (GE) in comparison with cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) with patients with mild to moderate depression. www.controlled‐trials.com 2007.
Pelham 1993 {published data only}
    1. Pelham TW, Compagna PD, Ritvo PG, Birnnie WA. The effects of exercise therapy on clients in a psychiatric rehabilitation program. Psychosocial Rehabilitation Journal 1993;16(4):75‐83.
Penninx 2002 {published data only}
    1. Ettinger WH Jr, Burns R, Messier SP, Applegate W, Rejeski WJ, Morgan T, et al. A randomized trial comparing aerobic exercise and resistance exercise with a health education program in older adults with knee osteoarthritis. The Fitness Arthritis and Seniors Trial (FAST). JAMA 1997;277(1):25‐31. - PubMed
    1. Penninx BWJH, Rejeski WJ, Pandya J, Miller ME, Bari MD, Applegate WB, et al. Exercise and depressive symptoms: a comparison on aerobic and resistance exercise effects on emotional and physical function in older persons with high and low depressive symptomatology. Journals of Gerontology. Series B, Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences 2002;57(2):124‐32. - PubMed
Penttinen 2011 {published data only}
    1. Pentinnen HM, Saarto T, Kellokumpu‐Lehtinen P, Blomqvist C, Huovinen R, Kautiainen H, et al. Quality of life and physical performance and activity of breast cancer patients after adjuvant treatments. Psycho‐Oncology 2011;20(11):1211‐20. - PubMed
Perna 2010 {published data only}
    1. Perna FM, Craft L, Freund KM, Skrinar G, Stone M, Kachnic L, et al. The effect of a cognitive behavioral exercise intervention on clinical depression in a multiethnic sample of women with breast cancer: A randomized controlled trial. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology 2010;8(1):36‐47.
Perri 1984 {published data only}
    1. Perri S 2nd, Temper DL. The effects of an aerobic exercise programme on psychological variables in older adults. International Journal of Aging and Human Development 1984;20(3):1984‐5. - PubMed
Piette 2011 {published data only}
    1. Piette JD, Valenstein M, Himle J, Duffy S, Torres T, Vogel M, et al. Clinical complexity and the effectiveness of an intervention for depressed diabetes patients. Chronic Illness 2011;7(4):267‐78. - PMC - PubMed
Raglin 1990 {published data only}
    1. Raglin JS. Exercise and mental health. Beneficial and detrimental effects. Sports Medicine 1990;9(6):323‐9. - PubMed
Rhodes 1980 {published data only}
    1. Rhodes DL. Mens Sana Corpore Sano: A Study of the Effect of Jogging on Depression Anxiety and Self Concept [dissertation]. Durham, NC: Duke University, 1980.
Robledo Colonia 2012 {published data only}
    1. Robledo Colonia AF, Sandoval Restrepo N, Mosquera Valderrama YF, Escobar Hurtado C, Ramirez Velez R. Aerobic exercise training during pregnancy reduces depressive symptoms in nulliparous women: a randomised trial. Journal of Physiotherapy 2012;58(1):9‐15. - PubMed
Rofey 2008 {published data only}
    1. Rofey DL, Szigethy EM, Noll RB, Dahl RE, Lobst E, Arslanian SA. Cognitive‐behavioral therapy for physical and emotional disturbances in adolescents with polycystic ovary syndrome: a pilot study. Journal of Pediatric Psychology 2009;34(2):156‐63. - PMC - PubMed
Roshan 2011 {published data only}
    1. Roshan VD, Pourasghar M, Mohammadian Z. The efficacy of intermittent walking in water on the rate of MHPG sulfate and the severity of depression. Iranian Journal of Psychiatry 2011;5(2):26‐31. - PMC - PubMed
Roth 1987 {published data only}
    1. Roth DL, Holmes DS. Influence of aerobic exercise training and relaxation training on physical and psychologic health following stressful life events. Psychosomatic Medicine 1987;49(4):355‐65. - PubMed
Ruunsunen 2012 {published data only}
    1. Ruunsunen A, Voutilainen S, Karhunen L, Lehto SM, Tolmunen T, Keinanen‐Kiukaanniemi S, et al. How does lifestyle intervention affect depressive symptoms? Results from the Finnish Diabetes Prevention Study. Diabetic Medicine 2012;29(7):e126‐e132. - PubMed
Salminen 2005 {published data only}
    1. Salminen M, Isoaho R, Vahlberg T, Ojanlatva A, Kivela SL. Effects of a health advocacy, counselling, and activation programme on depressive symptoms in older coronary heart disease patients. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry 2005;20(6):552‐8. - PubMed
Salmon 2001 {published data only}
    1. Salmon P. Effects of physical exercise on anxiety, depression, and sensitivity to stress: a unifying theory. Clinical Psychology Review 2001;21(1):33‐61. - PubMed
Sarsan 2006 {published data only}
    1. Sarsan A, Ardiç F, Özgen M, Topuz O. The effects of aerobic and resistance exercises in obese women. Clinical Rehabilitation 2006;20:773‐82. - PubMed
Schwarz 2012 {published data only}
    1. Schwarz MJ, Hennings A, Riemer S, Stapf T, Selberdinger V, Gil FP, et al. Effect of physical exercise on psychoneuruoimmunological parameters in patients with depression and patients with somatoform disorder. Neurology Psychiatry and Brain Research [abstracts of the 11th Psychoimmunology Expert Meeting]. 2012.
Sexton 1989 {published data only}
    1. Sexton H, Maere A, Dahl NH. Exercise intensity and reduction in neurotic symptoms. A controlled follow‐up study. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 1989;80(3):231‐5. - PubMed
Silveira 2010 {published data only}
    1. Silveira H, Deslandes AC, Moraes H, Mouta R, Ribeiro P, Piedade R, et al. Effects of exercise on electrocencephalographic mean frequency in depressed elderly subjects. Neuropsychobiology 2010;61(3):141‐7. - PubMed
Sims 2006 {published data only}
    1. Sims J, Hill K, Davidson S, Gunn J, Huang N. Exploring the feasibility of a community‐based strength training program for older people with depressive symptoms and its impact on depressive symptoms. BMC Geriatrics 2006;6:18. - PMC - PubMed
Skrinar 2005 {published data only}
    1. Skrinar GS, Huxley NA, Hutchinson DS, Menninger E, Glew P. The role of a fitness intervention on people with serious psychiatric disabilities. Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal 2005;29(2):122‐7. - PubMed
Smith 2008 {published data only}
    1. Smith PS, Thompson M. Treadmill training post stroke: are there any secondary benefits? A pilot study. Clinical Rehabilitation 2008;22:997‐1002. - PubMed
Sneider 2008 {published data only}
    1. Sneider KL, Bodenlos JS, Ma Y, Olendzki B, Oleski J, Merriam P, et al. Design and methods for a randomised clinical trial treating comorbid obesity and major depressive disorder. BMC Pyschiatry 2008;8:77. - PMC - PubMed
Songoygard 2012 {published data only}
    1. Songoygard KM, Stafne SN, Evensen KAI, Salvesen KA, Vik T, Morkved S. Does exercise during pregnancy prevent postnatal depression?: A randomized controlled trial. Acta Obstetricia et Gynecologica Scandinavica 2012;91(1):62‐7. - PubMed
Stein 1992 {published data only}
    1. Stein PN, Motta RW. Effects of aerobic and nonaerobic exercise on depression and self‐concept. Perceptual and Motor Skills 1992;74(1):79‐89. - PubMed
Stern 1983 {published data only}
    1. Stern MJ, Gorman PA, Kaslow L. The group counseling v exercise therapy study. A controlled intervention with subjects following myocardial infarction. Archives of Internal Medicine 1983;143(9):1719‐25. - PubMed
    1. Stern MJ, Plionis E, Kaslow L. Group process expectations and outcome with post‐myocardial infarction patients. General Hospital Psychiatry 1984;6(2):101‐8. - PubMed
Strömbeck 2007 {published data only}
    1. Strömbeck BE, Theander E, Jacobsson LTH. Effects of exercise on aerobic capacity and fatigue in women with primary Sjögren's syndrome. Rheumatology 2007;46:868‐71. - PubMed
Sung 2009 {published data only}
    1. Sung K. The effects of 16‐week group exercise program on physical function and mental health of elderly Korean women in long‐term assisted living facility. Journal of Cardiovascular Nursing 2009;24(5):344‐51. - PubMed
Tapps 2009 {published data only}
    1. Tapps T. An Investigation into the Effects of Resistance Exercise Participation on the Perceived Depression Levels of Older Adults Residing in a Long‐Term Care Facility Over Time [dissertation]. Oklahoma State University, 2009.
Taylor 1986 {published data only}
    1. Taylor CB, Houston Miller N, Ahn DK, Haskell W, DeBusk RF. The effects of exercise training programmes on psychosocial improvement in uncomplicated postmyocardial infarction patients. Journal of Psychosomatic Research 1986;30(5):581‐7. - PubMed
Tenorio 1986 {published data only}
    1. Tenorio LM. Effects of Aerobic Exercise on Symptoms of Depression in Women [dissertation]. Denton, TX: Texas Woman's University, 1986.
Thomson 2010 {published data only}
    1. Thomson RL, Buckley JD, Lim SS, Noakes M, Clifton PM, Norman RJ, et al. Lifestyle management improves quality of life and depression in overweight and obese women with polycystic ovary syndrome. Fertility and Sterility 2010;94(5):1812‐6. - PubMed
Tomas‐Carus 2008 {published data only}
    1. Tomas‐Carus P, Gusi N, Häkkinen A, Häkkinen K, Leal A, Ortega‐Alonso A. Eight months of physical training in warm water improves physical and mental health in women with fibromyalgia: a randomized controlled trial. Journal of Rehabilitation Medicine 2008;40:248‐52. - PubMed
TREAD 2003 {published data only}
    1. National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH). Treatment With Exercise Augmentation for Depression (TREAD). ClinicalTrials.gov (http://www.clinicaltrials.gov) 2003. [NCT00076258]
    1. Trivedi MH, Greer TL, Grannemann BD, Church TS, Galper DI, Sunderajan P, et al. TREAD: TReatment with Exercise Augmentation for Depression: study rationale and design. Clinical Trials 2006;3(3):291‐305. - PubMed
Trivedi 2011 {published data only}
    1. Trivedi MH, Greer TL, Church TS, Carmody TJ, Grannemann BD, Galper DI, et al. Exercise as an augmentation treatment for nonremitted major depressive disorder: a randomized, parallel dose comparison. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 2011;72(5):677‐84. - PMC - PubMed
Tsang 2003 {published data only}
    1. Tsang HWH, Mok CK, Au Yeung YT, Chan SYC. The effect of Qigong on general and psychosocial health of elderly with chronic physical illnesses: a randomised clinical trial. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry 2003;18(5):441‐9. - PubMed
Tsang 2006 {published data only}
    1. Tsang HWH, Fung KMT, Chan ASM, Lee G, Chan F. Effect of qigong exercise programme on elderly with depression. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry 2006;21:890‐7. - PubMed
Underwood 2013 {published data only}
    1. Ellard DR, Taylor SJ, Parsons S, Thorogood M. The OPERA trial: a protocol for the process evaluation of a randomised trial of an exercise intervention for older people in residential and nursing accommodation. Trials 2011;12:28. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Underwood M, Lamb SE, Eldridge S, Sheehan B, Slowther A, Spencer A, et al. Exercise for depression in care home residents: a randomised controlled trial with cost effectiveness analysis (OPERA). Health Technology Assessment May 2013;17(18):1‐281. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Underwood M, Lamb SE, Eldridge S, Sheehan B, Slowther A‐M, Spencer A, et al. Exercise for depression in elderly residents of care homes: a cluster‐randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2013;382(9886):41‐9. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Underwood M, Eldridge S, Lamb S, Potter R, Sheehan B, Slowther AM, et al. The OPERA trial: protocol for a randomised trial of an exercise intervention for older people in residential and nursing accommodation. Trials 2011;12:27. - PMC - PubMed
Van der Merwe 2004 {published data only}
    1. Merwe I, Naude S. Exercise and depression: a treatment manual. Health SA Gesondheid 2004;9(4):28‐41.
Van de Vliet 2003 {published data only}
    1. Vliet P, Onghena P, Knapen J, Fox KR, Probst M, Coppenolle H, et al. Assessing the additional impact of fitness training in depressed psychiatric patients receiving multifaceted treatment: a replicated single‐subject design. Disability and Rehabilitation 2003;25(24):1344‐53. - PubMed
Vickers 2009 {published data only}
    1. Vickers KS, Patten CA, Lewis BA, Clark MM, Ussher M, Ebbert JO, et al. Feasibility of an exercise counseling intervention for depressed women smokers. Nicotine & Tobacco Research 2009;11(8):985‐95. - PMC - PubMed
Weinstein 2007 {published data only}
    1. Weinstein AA, Deuster PA, Kop WJ. Heart rate variability as a predictor of negative mood symptoms induced by exercise withdrawal. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 2007;39(4):735‐41. - PubMed
Weiss 1989 {published data only}
    1. Weiss CR, Jamieson NB. Women, subjective depression, and water exercise. Health Care for Women International 1989;10(1):75‐88. - PubMed
White 2007 {published data only}
    1. White PD, Sharpe MC, Chalder T, DeCesare JC, Walwyn R, PACE trial group. Protocol for the PACE trial: a randomised controlled trial of adaptive pacing, cognitive behaviour therapy, and graded exercise as supplements to standardised specialist medical care versus standardised specialist medical care alone for patients with the chronic fatigue syndrome/myalgic encephalomyelitis or encephalopathy. BMC Neurology 2007;7:6. - PMC - PubMed
Whitham 2011 {published data only}
    1. Whitham EA, Thommi SB, Holtzman NS, Ostacher MM, El‐Mallakh RS, Baldassano CF, et al. Rapid cycling and antidepressants: Data from a STEP‐BD randomized clinical trial. Bipolar Disorders [abstracts from the 9th International Conference on Bipolar Disorder]. 2011; Vol. 13:s1.
Wieman 1980 {published data only}
    1. Wieman JB. Running as a Treatment for Depression: A Theoretical Basis [dissertation]. Fresno, CA: California School of Professional Psychology, 1980.
Wilbur 2009 {published data only}
    1. Wilbur J, Zenk S, Wang E, Oh A, McDevitt J, Block D, et al. Neighborhood characteristics, adherence to walking, and depressive symptoms in midlife African American women. Journal of Women's Health 2009;18(8):1201‐10. - PMC - PubMed
Williams 1992 {published data only}
    1. Williams VL. Acute Mood and EEG Effects of Aerobic Exercise in Depressed and Non‐Depressed Adults [dissertation]. Birmingham, AL: The University of Alabama, 1992.
Wipfli 2008 {published data only}
    1. Wipfli BM. Serotonin and Psychological Variables in the Relationship Between Exercise and Mental Health [dissertation]. Arizona State University, 2008. - PubMed
Wipfli 2011 {published data only}
    1. Wipfli B, Landers D, Nagoshi C, Ringenbach S. An examination of serotonin and psychological variables in the relationship between exercise and mental health. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports 2011;21(3):474‐81. - PubMed

References to studies awaiting assessment

Aghakhani 2011 {published data only}
    1. Aghakhani N, Sharif F, Khademvatan K, Rahbar N, Eghtedar S, Shojaei Motlagh V. The reduction in anxiety and depression by education of patients with myocardial infarction. International Cardiovascular Research Journal 2011;5(2):66‐8.
DEMO II 2012 {published data only}
    1. Krogh J, Videbech P, Thomsen C, Gluud C, Nordentoft M. DEMO‐II Trial. Aerobic exercise versus stretching exercise in patients with major depression ‐ a randomised clinical trial. PLoS ONE 2012;7(10):e48316. - PMC - PubMed
Gotta 2012 {published data only}
    1. Gotta G. Sex differences and the effects of exercise on depression and executive dysfunctioning in older adults (thesis). Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering 2012;72(10‐B):6385.
Martiny 2012 {published data only}
    1. Martiny K, Refsgaard E, Lund V, Lunde M, Sorensen L, Thougaard B, et al. A 9‐week randomised trial comparing a chronotherapeutic intervention (wake and light therapy) to exercise in major depressive disorder patients treated with duloxetine. Journal of Clinical Pyschiatry 2012;73(9):1234‐42. - PubMed
Murphy 2012 {published data only}
    1. Murphy SM, Edwards RT, Williams N, Raisanen L, Moore G, Linck P, et al. An evaluation of the effectiveness and cost effectiveness of the National Exercise Referral Scheme in Wales, UK: a randomised controlled trial of a public health policy initiative. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 2012;66(8):745‐53. - PMC - PubMed
Pinniger 2012 {published data only}
    1. Pinniger R, Brown RF, Thorsteinssona EB, McKinley P. Argentine tango dance compared to mindfulness meditation and a waiting‐list control: a randomised trial for treating depression. Complementary Therapies in Medicine 2012;20(6):377‐84. - PubMed
Sturm 2012 {published data only}
    1. Sturm J, Ploderl M, Fartacek C, Kralovec K, Neunhauserer D, Niederseer D, et al. Physical exercise through mountain hiking in high‐risk suicide patients. A randomized crossover trial. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 2012;126(6):467‐75. - PubMed

References to ongoing studies

ACTRN12605000475640 {published data only}
    1. ACTRN12605000475640. Does a home‐based physical activity programme improve function and depressive symptomatology in older primary care patients: a randomised controlled trial. [Australian New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry] www.anzctr.org.au/ACTRN12605000475640.aspx (accessed 1 March 2013).
ACTRN12609000150246 {published data only}
    1. ACTRN12609000150246. Promoting physical activity to improve the outcome of depression in later life (ACTIVEDEP). www.anzctr.org.au/ACTRN12609000150246.aspx ) (accessed 1 March 2013.
ACTRN12612000094875 {published data only}
    1. ACTRN12612000094875. A randomised controlled trial to improve depression in family carers through a physical activity intervention: IMPACCT Study. www.anzctr.org.au/ACTRN12612000094875.aspx (accessed 1 March 2013).
CTR/2012/09/002985 {published data only}
    1. CTR/2012/09/002985. Effect of sprint interval training on depression: a randomized controlled trial [Clinical Trials Registry ‐ India]. www.ctri.nic.in/Clinicaltrials/pmaindet2.php?trialid=5224 (accessed 1 March 2013).
EFFORT D {published data only}
    1. Kruisdijk FR, Hendriksen IJM, Tak ECPM, Beekman ATF, Hopman‐Rock M. Effect of running therapy on depression (EFFORT‐D). Design of a randomised controlled trial in adult patients. BMC Public Health 2012;12:50. [NTR1894] - PMC - PubMed
IRCT201205159763 {published data only}
    1. IRCT201205159763N1. The effect of regular exercise on the depression of hemodialysis patients. www.irct.ir/searchresult.php?id=9763&number=1 (accessed 1 March 2013). [IRCT201205159763N1]
IRCT2012061910003N1 {published data only}
    1. IRCT2012061910003N1. A comparative study of the efficiency of group cognitive‐ behavioral therapy with aerobic exercise in treating of major depression. www/irct.ir/searchresult.php?id=10065&number=1 (accessed 1 March 2013).
ISRCTN05673017 {published data only}
    1. ISRCTN05673017. Psycho‐education physical exercise effects: does treating subsyndromal depression improve depression‐ and diabetes‐related outcomes? [PEPEE]. isrctn.org/ISRCTN05673017 (accessed 1 March 2013).
NCT00103415 {published data only}
    1. NCT00103415. Trial investigating the effect of different exercise forms on depression. ClinicalTrials.gov/show/NCT00103415 (accessed 1 March 2013).
NCT00643695 {published data only}
    1. NCT00643695. Efficacy of an Exercise Intervention to Decrease Depressive Symptoms in Veterans With Hepatitis C. ClinicalTrials.gov/show/NCT00643695 (accessed 1 March 2013).
NCT00931814 {published data only}
    1. NCT00931814. Effects of exercise on depression symptoms, physical function, and quality of life in community‐dwelling elderly. ClinicalTrials.gov/show/NCT00931814 (accessed 1 March 2013).
NCT01024790 {published data only}
    1. NCT01024790. Exercise study to help patients who have type 2 diabetes and depression. ClinicalTrials.gov/show/NCT01024790 (accessed 1 March 2013).
NCT01383811 {published data only}
    1. NCT01383811. Clinical and neuroendocrine/metabolic benefits of exercise in treatment resistant depression (TRD): a feasibility study. ClinicalTrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT01383811 (accessed 1 March 2013).
NCT01401569 {published data only}
    1. NCT01401569. Efficacy of exercise and counseling intervention on relapse in smokers with depressive disorders STOB‐ACTIV [NXR 01401569]. http://clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT01401569.
NCT01464463 {published data only}
    1. NCT01464463. The impact of psychological interventions (with and without wxercise) on psychometric and immunological measures in patients With major depression. ClinicalTrials.gov/show/NCT01464463 (accessed 1 March 2013).
NCT01573130 {published data only}
    1. NCT01573130. An internet‐administered, therapist‐supported physical exercise program for the treatment of depression. ClinicalTrials.gov/show/NCT01573130 (accessed 1 March 2013).
NCT01573728 {published data only}
    1. NCT01573728. Role of exercise in depression in middle aged and older adults. ClinicalTrials.gov/slow/NCT01573728 (accessed 1 March 2013).
NCT01619930 {published data only}
    1. NCT01619930. The effects of behavioural activation and physical exercise on depression. ClinicalTrials.gov/show/NCT01619930 (accessed 1 March 2013).
NCT01696201 {published data only}
    1. NCT01696201. Effect of a supervised exercise program during whole pregnancy on outcomes and level of depression. ClinicalTrials.gov/show/NCT01696201 (accessed 1 March 2013).
NCT01763983 {published data only}
    1. NCT01763983. Effects of cognitive behaviour therapy and exercise on depression and cognitive deficits in multiple sclerosis. ClinicalTrials.gov/show/NCT01763983 (accessed 1 March 2013).
NCT01787201 {published data only}
    1. NCT01787201. The effects of exercise on depression symptoms using levels of neurotransmitters and EEG as markers. ClinicalTrials.gov/show/NCT01787201 (accessed 1 March 2013).
NCT01805479 {published data only}
    1. NCT01805479. Exercise therapy in depressed traumatic brain injury survivors. ClinicalTrials.gov/show/NCT01805479 (accessed 1 March 2013).
UMIN000001488 {published data only}
    1. UMIN000001488. A randomised controlled trial of exercise class for older persons with mild depression. www.umin.ac.jp/ctr/index.htm (accessed 1 March 2013).

Additional references

ACSM 1998
    1. ACSM. ACSM position stand on the recommended quantity and quality of exercise for developing and maintaining cardiorespiratory and muscular fitness, and flexibility in adults. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 1998;30:975‐91. - PubMed
ACSM 2001
    1. American College of Sports Medicine. ACSM's Resource Manual for Guidelines for Exercise Testing and Prescription. 4th Edition. Lippincott, Williams and Wilkins, 2001.
Arroll 2009
    1. Arroll B, Elley CR, Fishman T, Goodyear‐Smith FA, Kenealy T, Blashki G, et al. Antidepressants versus placebo for depression in primary care. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2009, Issue 3. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD007954] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Astin 1998
    1. Astin JA. Why patients use alternative medicine: results of a study. JAMA 1998;279(19):1548‐53. - PubMed
Babyak 2000
    1. Babyak M, Blumenthal JA, Herman S, Khatri P, Doraiswamy M, Moore K, et al. Exercise treatment for major depression. Maintenance of therapeutic benefits at 10 months. Psychosomatic Medicine 2000;62(5):633‐8. - PubMed
Beck 1961
    1. Beck AT, Ward CH, Mendelson M, Mock J, Erbaugh J. An inventory for measuring depression. Archives of General Psychiatry 1961;4(6):561‐71. - PubMed
Beesley 1997
    1. Beesley S, Mutrie N. Exercise is beneficial adjunctive treatment in depression. BMJ 1997;315(7121):1542‐3. - PMC - PubMed
Blake 2009
    1. Blake H. How effective are physical activity interventions for alleviating depressive symptoms in older people? A systematic review. Clinical Rehabilitation 2009;23:873‐87. - PubMed
Carlson 1991
    1. Carlson DL. The Effects of Exercise on Depression: A Review and Meta‐Regression Analysis [dissertation]. Milwaukee: University of Wisconsin, 1991.
Chen 2013
    1. Chen MJ. The neurobiology of depression and physical exercise. Handbook of Physical Activity and Mental Health. London: Routledge, 2013:169‐84.
Cotman 2002
    1. Cotman CW, Berchtold NC. Exercise: a behavioural intervention to enhance brain health and plasticity. Trends in Neurosciences 2002;25(6):295‐301. - PubMed
Craft 2005
    1. Craft LL. Exercise and clinical depression: examining two psychological mechanisms. Psychology of Sport and Exercise 2005;6:151‐71.
Craft 2013
    1. Craft LL. Potential psychological mechanisms underlying the exercise and depression relationship.. Handbook of Physical Activity and Mental Health. London: Routledge, 2013.
Daley 2008
    1. Daley A. Exercise and depression: a review of reviews. Journal of Clinical Psychology in Medical Settings 2008;15:140‐7. - PubMed
DerSimonian 1986
    1. DerSimonian R, Laird N. Meta‐analysis in clinical trials. Controlled Clinical Trials 1986;7(3):177‐88. - PubMed
Diener 1984
    1. Diener E. Subjective well‐being. Psychological Bulletin 1984;95:542‐75. - PubMed
DOH 2001
    1. Department of Health. Exercise referral systems: a national quality assurance framework. http://www.dh.gov.uk/en/Publicationsandstatistics/Publications/Publicati... 2001.
Donaghy 2000
    1. Donaghy M, Durward B. A report on the clinical effectiveness of physiotherapy in mental health. Research and Clinical Effectiveness Unit, Chartered Society of Physiotherapy 2000.
Ernst 2005
    1. Ernst C, Olson AK, Pinel JPJ, Lam RW, Christie BR. Antidepressant effects of exercise: evidence for an adult neurogenesis hypothesis?. Journal of Psychiatry and Neurosciences 2006;31(2):84‐92. - PMC - PubMed
Fox 2000
    1. Fox KR. The effects of exercise on self‐perceptions and self‐esteem. In: Biddle SJH, Fox KR editor(s). Physical Activity and Psychological Well‐Being. London: Routledge, 2000:88‐117.
Hamilton 1960
    1. Hamilton M. A rating scale for depression. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry 1960;23:56‐62. - PMC - PubMed
Handbook 2011
    1. Higgins JPT, Green S (editors). Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions Version 5.1.0 [updated March 2011]. The Cochrane Collaboration, 2011. Available from www.cochrane‐handbook.org.
Krogh 2011
    1. Krogh J, Nordentoft M, Sterne J, Lawlor DA. The effect of exercise in clinical depressed adults: systematic review and meta‐analysis of randomised controlled trials. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 2011;72(4):529‐38. - PubMed
Lawlor 2001
    1. Lawlor DA, Hopker SW. The effectiveness of exercise as an intervention in the management of depression: systematic review and meta‐regression analysis of randomised controlled trials. BMJ 2001;322(7289):763‐7. - PMC - PubMed
LePore 1997
    1. LePore SJ. Expressive writing moderates the relation between intrusive thoughts and depressive symptoms. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 1997;73(5):1030‐7. - PubMed
Moussavi 2007
    1. Moussavi S, Chatterji S, Verdes E, Tandon A, Patel V, Ustun B. Depression, chronic diseases, and decrements in health: results from the World Health Surveys. Lancet 2007;370(9590):808‐9. - PubMed
NICE 2009
    1. National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence. Depression: the treatment and management of depression in adults (update). http://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/CG90 2009.
North 1990
    1. North TC, McCullagh P, Tran ZV. Effect of exercise on depression. Exercise and Sport Sciences Reviews 1990;18:379‐415. - PubMed
Pavey 2011
    1. Pavey TG, Taylor AH, Fox KR, Hillsdon M, Anoyke N, Campbell L, et al. Effect of exercise referral schemes in primary care on physical activity and improving health outcomes: systematic review and meta‐analysis. BMJ 2011;343:d6462. - PMC - PubMed
Pinquart 2007
    1. Pinquart M, Duberstein PR, Lyness JM. Effects of psychotherapy and other behavioral interventions on clinical depressed older adults: a meta‐analysis. Aging and Mental Health 2007;11(6):645‐57. - PubMed
Rethorst 2009
    1. Rethorst CD, Wipfli BM, Landers DM. The antidepressive effects of exercise. Sports Medicine 2009;39(6):491‐511. - PubMed
Robertson 2012
    1. Robertson R, Robertson A, Jepson R, Maxwell M. Walking for depression or depressive symptoms: a systematic review and meta‐analysis. Mental Health and Physical Activity 2012;5:66‐75.
Schünemann 2008
    1. Schünemann HJ, Oxman AD, Vist GE, Higgins JPT, Deeks JJ, Glasziou P, et al. Chapter 12: Interpreting results and drawing conclusions. In: Higgins JPT, Green S. Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions Version 5.1.o (updated March 2011). The Cochrane Collaboration, 2011. Available from www.cochrane‐handbook.org.
SIGN 2010
    1. Scottish Intercollegiate Guidelines Network. Non‐pharmaceutical management of depression in adults. http://www.sign.ac.uk/pdf/sign114.pdf January 2010.
Singh 2001
    1. Singh NA, Clements KM, Singh MAF. The efficacy of exercise as a long‐term anti‐depressant ‐ elderly subjects. A randomised controlled trial. Journals of Gerontology. Series A, Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences 2001;56(8):M497‐504. - PubMed
Sjosten 2006
    1. Sjosten N, Kivela SL. The effects of physical exercise on depressive symptoms among the aged: a systematic review. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry 2006;21(5):410‐8. - PubMed
Smith 2013
    1. Smith PJ, Blumenthal JA. Exercise and physical activity in the prevention and treatment of depression. Handbook of Physical Activity and Mental Health. London: Routledge, 2013:145‐160.
Sorensen 2006
    1. Sorensen JB, Skovgaard T, Puggaard L. Exercise on prescription in general practice: a systematic review. Scandinavian Journal of Primary Health Care 2006;24(2):69‐74. - PubMed
Stathopoulou 2006
    1. Stathopoulou G, Powers MB, Berry AC, Smits JAJ, Otto MW. Exercise interventions for mental health: a quantitative and qualitative review. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice 2006;13:179‐93.

References to other published versions of this review

Mead 2009
    1. Mead GE, Morley W, Campbell P, Greig CA, McMurdo M, Lawlor DA. Exercise for depression. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2009, Issue 3. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD004366.pub4] - DOI - PubMed
Rimer 2012
    1. Rimer J, Dwan K, Lawlor DA, Greig CA, McMurdo M, Morley W, et al. Exercise for depression. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2012, Issue 7. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD004366.pub5] - DOI - PubMed

Publication types