Skip to main page content
U.S. flag

An official website of the United States government

Dot gov

The .gov means it’s official.
Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

Https

The site is secure.
The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

Access keys NCBI Homepage MyNCBI Homepage Main Content Main Navigation
. 2013 Aug;55(4):367-374.
doi: 10.1016/j.paid.2013.03.019.

Gender differences in rumination: A meta-analysis

Daniel P Johnson  1 , Mark A Whisman
Affiliations

Gender differences in rumination: A meta-analysis

Daniel P Johnson et al. Pers Individ Dif. 2013 Aug.

Abstract

Starting in adolescence and continuing through adulthood, women are twice as likely as men to experience depression. According to the response styles theory (RST), gender differences in depression result, in part, from women's tendency to ruminate more than men. A meta-analysis was performed to evaluate gender differences in rumination in adults (k = 59; N = 14,321); additionally, an analysis of subtypes of rumination - brooding and reflection - was conducted (k = 23). Fixed effects analyses indicated that women scored higher than men in rumination (d = .24, p < .01, SEd = .02), brooding (d = .19, p < .01, SEd = .03) and reflection (d = .17, p < .01, SEd = .03); there was no evidence of heterogeneity or publication bias across studies for these effect sizes. Although statistically significant, the effect sizes for gender differences in rumination were small in magnitude. Results are discussed with respect to the RST and gender differences in depression.

Keywords: Brooding; Depression; Gender difference; Reflection; Rumination; Sex difference.

PubMed Disclaimer

Figures

Fig. 1
Fig. 1
Effect sizes (standard difference in means) and forest plot of gender differences in rumination.
Fig. 2
Fig. 2
Funnel plot for rumination analysis.
Fig. 3
Fig. 3
Funnel plot for brooding analysis.
Fig. 4
Fig. 4
Funnel plot for reflection analysis.
See this image and copyright information in PMC

References

    1. Alloy LB, Abramson LY, Hogan ME, Whitehouse WG, Rose DT, Robinson MS, et al. The Temple-Wisconsin Cognitive Vulnerability to Depression Project: Lifetime history of axis I psychopathology in individuals at high and low cognitive risk for depression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology. 2000;109:403–418. doi: 10.1037/0021-843X.109.3.403. - DOI - PubMed
    1. Armey MF, Fresco DM, Moore MT, Mennin DS, Turk CL, Heimberg RG, et al. Brooding and pondering: Isolating the active ingredients of depressive rumination with exploratory factor analysis and structural equation modeling. Assessment. 2009;16:315–327. doi: 10.1177/1073191109340388. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
    1. Baldwin S, Shadish W. A primer on meta-analysis in clinical psychology. Journal of Experimental Psychopathology. 2011;2:294–317. doi: 10.5127/jep.009610. - DOI
    1. Boughten S, Street H. Integrated review of the social and psychological gender differences in depression. Australian Psychologist. 2007;42:187–197. doi: 10.1080/00050060601139770. - DOI
    1. Cambron MJ, Acitelli LK, Pettit JW. Explaining gender differences in depression: An interpersonal contingent self-esteem perspective. Sex Roles. 2009;61:751–761. doi: 10.1007/s11199-009-9616-6. - DOI

References included in the meta-analyses

    1. Barnhofer T, Kuehn EM, de Jong-Meyer R, Williams JMG. Beliefs about benefits of rumination in depressed men and women with and without a history of assault. Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy. 2007;35:317–324. doi: 10.1017/s1352465806003341. - DOI
    1. Butler LD, Nolen-Hoeksema S. Gender differences in response to depressed mood in a college sample. Sex Roles. 1994;30:331–346. doi: 10.1007/BF01420597. - DOI
    1. Calmes CA, Roberts JE. Repetitive thought and emotional distress: Rumination and worry as prospective predictors of depressive and anxious symptomatology. Cognitive Therapy and Research. 2007;31:343–356. doi: 10.1007/s10608-006-9026-9. - DOI
    1. Cambron MJ, Acitelli LK. Examining the link between friendship contingent self-esteem and the self-propagating cycle of depression. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology. 2010;29:701–726. doi: 10.1521/jscp.2010.29.6.701. - DOI
    1. Carter JD, Frampton CMA, Mulder RT, Luty SE, McKenzie JM, Joyce PR. Rumination: Relationship to depression and personality in a clinical sample. Personality and Mental Health. 2009;3:275–283. doi: 10.1002/pmh.91. - DOI

LinkOut - more resources