Skip to main page content
U.S. flag

An official website of the United States government

Dot gov

The .gov means it’s official.
Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

Https

The site is secure.
The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

Access keys NCBI Homepage MyNCBI Homepage Main Content Main Navigation
. 2014 Feb;16(2):238-42.
doi: 10.1093/ntr/ntt163. Epub 2013 Oct 22.

Cigarette smoking as an expression of independence and freedom among inmates in a tobacco-free prison in the United States

Jacob J van den Berg  1 , Beth Bock, Mary B Roberts, Lynda A R Stein, Peter D Friedmann, Stephen A Martin, Jennifer G Clarke
Affiliations

Cigarette smoking as an expression of independence and freedom among inmates in a tobacco-free prison in the United States

Jacob J van den Berg et al. Nicotine Tob Res. 2014 Feb.

Abstract

Introduction: Most adults report initiation of cigarette smoking during adolescence, a time also marked by developmental striving for independence and freedom. Tobacco use may retain its association with independence and/or freedom into adulthood. This association may contribute to continued tobacco use and/or increased risk of relapse to smoking among some individuals. This study examines the relationship between cigarette smoking and perceptions of independence and freedom among inmates in a tobacco-free prison in the northeastern United States.

Methods: Questionnaires administered to 247 male and female inmates 6 weeks prior to scheduled prison release assessed demographics, smoking history, nicotine dependence, attitudes toward smoking, and plans for tobacco use or abstinence after prison release. Perceptions of smoking as an expression of independence and freedom were measured using 2 items. Smoking was assessed 3 weeks postrelease.

Results: Constructs of freedom and independence were correlated but did not overlap completely. Both constructs were negatively associated with plans for smoking abstinence after prison release, and with perceived costs of continued smoking. Number of cigarettes smoked postrelease and perception of the pros of smoking were associated with freedom, but not independence.

Conclusions: Associations of smoking as an expression of freedom and independence may negatively influence plans for renewed smoking after a forced abstinence. Additional research is needed to determine the degree to which these 2 constructs predict smoking behavior and whether they can be used to improve interventions for incarcerated smokers.

PubMed Disclaimer

Figures

Figure 1.
Figure 1.
Distribution of scores endorsing smoking as indicators of freedom and independence.
See this image and copyright information in PMC

References

    1. Action on Smoking and Health (2010). ASH Fact Sheet: Smokefree prisons Retrieved from http://ash.org.uk/files/documents/ASH_740.pdf
    1. Biener L., Abrams D. B. (1991). The Contemplation Ladder: Validation of a measure of readiness to consider smoking cessation. Health Psychology, 10, 360–365.10.1037//0278-6133.10.5.360 - PubMed
    1. CDC (2011). Vital signs: Current cigarette smoking among adults aged ≥ 18 years—United States, 2005–2010. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 60, 1207–1212 - PubMed
    1. Clarke J. G., Martin R. A., Stein L., Lopes C. E., Mello J., Friedmann P., Bock B. (2011). Working Inside for Smoking Elimination (Project W.I.S.E.) study design and rationale to prevent return to smoking after release from a smoke free prison. BMC Public Health, 11, 767.10.1186/1471-2458-11-767 - PMC - PubMed
    1. Freedom (n.d). In Merriam-Webster’s online dictionary (11th ed.). Retrieved from http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/freedom

Publication types

MeSH terms