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Meta-Analysis
. 2014 Jan 6;2014(1):CD000284.
doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD000284.pub3.

Chlorpromazine versus placebo for schizophrenia

Clive E Adams  1 , George A Awad, John Rathbone, Ben Thornley, Karla Soares-Weiser
Affiliations
Meta-Analysis

Chlorpromazine versus placebo for schizophrenia

Clive E Adams et al. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. .

Abstract

Background: Chlorpromazine, formulated in the 1950s, remains a benchmark treatment for people with schizophrenia.

Objectives: To review the effects of chlorpromazine compared with placebo, for the treatment of schizophrenia.

Search methods: We searched the Cochrane Schizophrenia Group's Trials Register (15 May 2012). We also searched references of all identified studies for further trial citations. We contacted pharmaceutical companies and authors of trials for additional information.

Selection criteria: We included all randomised controlled trials (RCTs) comparing chlorpromazine with placebo for people with schizophrenia and non-affective serious/chronic mental illness irrespective of mode of diagnosis. Primary outcomes of interest were death, violent behaviours, overall improvement, relapse and satisfaction with care.

Data collection and analysis: We independently inspected citations and abstracts, ordered papers, re-inspected and quality assessed these. We analysed dichotomous data using risk ratio (RR) and estimated the 95% confidence interval (CI) around this. We excluded continuous data if more than 50% of participants were lost to follow-up. Where continuous data were included, we analysed this data using mean difference (MD) with a 95% confidence interval. We used a fixed-effect model.

Main results: We inspected over 1100 electronic records. The review currently includes 315 excluded studies and 55 included studies. The quality of the evidence is very low. We found chlorpromazine reduced the number of participants experiencing a relapse compared with placebo during six months to two years follow-up (n = 512, 3 RCTs, RR 0.65 CI 0.47 to 0.90), but data were heterogeneous. No difference was found in relapse rates in the short, medium or long term over two years, although data were also heterogeneous. We found chlorpromazine provided a global improvement in a person's symptoms and functioning (n = 1164, 14 RCTs, RR 0.71 CI 0.58 to 0.86). Fewer people allocated to chlorpromazine left trials early ( n = 1831, 27 RCTs, RR 0.64 CI 0.53 to 0.78) compared with placebo. There are many adverse effects. Chlorpromazine is clearly sedating (n = 1627, 23 RCTs, RR 2.79 CI 2.25 to 3.45), it increases a person's chances of experiencing acute movement disorders (n = 942, 5 RCTs, RR 3.47 CI 1.50 to 8.03) and parkinsonism (n = 1468, 15 RCTs, RR 2.11 CI 1.59 to 2.80). Akathisia did not occur more often in the chlorpromazine group than placebo. Chlorpromazine clearly causes a lowering of blood pressure with accompanying dizziness (n = 1488, 18 RCTs, RR 2.38 CI 1.74 to 3.25) and considerable weight gain (n = 165, 5 RCTs, RR 4.92 CI 2.32 to 10.43).

Authors' conclusions: The results of this review confirm much that clinicians and recipients of care already know but aim to provide quantification to support clinical impression. Chlorpromazine's global position as a 'benchmark' treatment for psychoses is not threatened by the findings of this review. Chlorpromazine, in common use for half a century, is a well-established but imperfect treatment. Judicious use of this best available evidence should lead to improved evidence-based decision making by clinicians, carers and patients.

PubMed Disclaimer

Conflict of interest statement

None known.

Figures

1
1
Study flow diagram.
2
2
'Risk of bias' graph: review authors' judgements about each 'Risk of bias' item presented as percentages across all included studies.
3
3
'Risk of bias' summary: review authors' judgements about each 'Risk of bias' item for each included study.
1.1
1.1. Analysis
Comparison 1 CHLORPROMAZINE versus PLACEBO, Outcome 1 Death.
1.2
1.2. Analysis
Comparison 1 CHLORPROMAZINE versus PLACEBO, Outcome 2 Relapse.
1.3
1.3. Analysis
Comparison 1 CHLORPROMAZINE versus PLACEBO, Outcome 3 Global state: 1a. No overall improvement (psychiatrist‐rated).
1.4
1.4. Analysis
Comparison 1 CHLORPROMAZINE versus PLACEBO, Outcome 4 Global state: 1b. No overall improvement (nurse‐rated).
1.5
1.5. Analysis
Comparison 1 CHLORPROMAZINE versus PLACEBO, Outcome 5 Global state: 2. Average endpoint score ‐ short term (CGI, high score=worse).
1.6
1.6. Analysis
Comparison 1 CHLORPROMAZINE versus PLACEBO, Outcome 6 Global state: 3a. Severity of illness, severely ill or worse (CGI 5+ points, psychiatrist‐rated).
1.7
1.7. Analysis
Comparison 1 CHLORPROMAZINE versus PLACEBO, Outcome 7 Global state: 3b. Severity of illness, severely ill or worse ‐ medium term (CGI 5+ points, nurse‐rated).
1.8
1.8. Analysis
Comparison 1 CHLORPROMAZINE versus PLACEBO, Outcome 8 Leaving the study early.
1.9
1.9. Analysis
Comparison 1 CHLORPROMAZINE versus PLACEBO, Outcome 9 Mental state: 1. Improved ‐ short term (BPRS, 50% change).
1.10
1.10. Analysis
Comparison 1 CHLORPROMAZINE versus PLACEBO, Outcome 10 Mental state: 2. Average endpoint scores (BPRS, high score=worse).
1.11
1.11. Analysis
Comparison 1 CHLORPROMAZINE versus PLACEBO, Outcome 11 Behaviour: 1. Deteriorated/ disturbed/un‐cooperative.
1.12
1.12. Analysis
Comparison 1 CHLORPROMAZINE versus PLACEBO, Outcome 12 Behaviour: 2. Unchanged.
1.13
1.13. Analysis
Comparison 1 CHLORPROMAZINE versus PLACEBO, Outcome 13 Behaviour: 3. Average endpoint scores (RRS, high score=worse).
1.14
1.14. Analysis
Comparison 1 CHLORPROMAZINE versus PLACEBO, Outcome 14 Behaviour: 4. Average endpoint score ‐ short term (PBRS, high score=good).
1.15
1.15. Analysis
Comparison 1 CHLORPROMAZINE versus PLACEBO, Outcome 15 Behaviour: 5. Average endpoint scores ‐ medium term (Fergus Falls Behavioural rating scale).
1.16
1.16. Analysis
Comparison 1 CHLORPROMAZINE versus PLACEBO, Outcome 16 Adverse effects: 1. Movement disorders.
1.17
1.17. Analysis
Comparison 1 CHLORPROMAZINE versus PLACEBO, Outcome 17 Adverse effects: 2. Movement disorders: Average endpoint scores (Extrapyramidal Bilan, high score=worse).
1.18
1.18. Analysis
Comparison 1 CHLORPROMAZINE versus PLACEBO, Outcome 18 Adverse effects: 1. Central nervous system.
1.19
1.19. Analysis
Comparison 1 CHLORPROMAZINE versus PLACEBO, Outcome 19 Adverse effects: 3. Blood, skin, liver, eyes.
1.20
1.20. Analysis
Comparison 1 CHLORPROMAZINE versus PLACEBO, Outcome 20 Adverse effects: 4. Other.
1.21
1.21. Analysis
Comparison 1 CHLORPROMAZINE versus PLACEBO, Outcome 21 SUBGROUP ANALYSIS: 1. MEN vs WOMEN: Behaviour: Deteriorated/disturbed/un‐cooperative.
1.22
1.22. Analysis
Comparison 1 CHLORPROMAZINE versus PLACEBO, Outcome 22 SUBGROUP ANALYSIS: 2. ACUTE vs CHRONIC.
1.23
1.23. Analysis
Comparison 1 CHLORPROMAZINE versus PLACEBO, Outcome 23 SUBGROUP ANALYSIS: 3. HIGH vs LOW DOSE.
1.24
1.24. Analysis
Comparison 1 CHLORPROMAZINE versus PLACEBO, Outcome 24 SUBGROUP ANALYSIS: 4. DIAGNOSTIC CRITERIA vs NO DIAGNOSTIC CRITERIA.
1.25
1.25. Analysis
Comparison 1 CHLORPROMAZINE versus PLACEBO, Outcome 25 SUBGROUP ANALYSIS: 5. STUDIES PRE‐1990 vs STUDIES 1990‐2007.
1.26
1.26. Analysis
Comparison 1 CHLORPROMAZINE versus PLACEBO, Outcome 26 SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS: 1. RANDOMISATION.
1.27
1.27. Analysis
Comparison 1 CHLORPROMAZINE versus PLACEBO, Outcome 27 SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS: 2. ASSUMPTIONS FOR LOST BINARY DATA.
See this image and copyright information in PMC

Update of

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Xiong 1994 {published data only}
    1. Xiong, Hu. A double‐blind comparative study of pheytoin and chlorpromazine in chronic schizophrenics. Medical Journal of Chinese Civil Administration 1994;6(4):160‐1.

References to studies excluded from this review

Abse 1960 {published data only}
    1. Abse WD, Dahlstrom WG, Tolley AG. Evaluation of tranquilizing drugs in the management of acute mental disturbance. American Journal of Psychiatry 1960;117:973‐80. - PubMed
Acker 1965 {published data only}
    1. Acker CW. An exploration of the autonomic effects of phenothiazines. Psychopharmacologia 1965;7:150‐8. - PubMed
Affleck 1966 {published data only}
    1. Affleck DC, Eaton MT, Mansfield E. The action of a medication and the physician's expectations. Nebraska State Medical Journal 1966;51:331‐4. - PubMed
Agarwal 1985 {published data only}
    1. Agarwal AK, Winny GC. Role of ECT phenothiazine combination in schizophrenia. Indian Journal of Psychiatry 1985;27:233‐6. - PMC - PubMed
Akimoto 1966 {published data only}
    1. Akimoto H, Shimazaki T, Shibata N, Sato Y, Takahashi R. Current status of pharmacotherapy in schizophrenia. Folia Psychiatrica et Neurologica Japonica 1966;20(1):1‐8. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Alpert 1966 {published data only}
    1. Alpert M, Hekimian LJ, Frosch WA. Evaluation of treatment with recorded interviews. American Journal of Psychiatry 1966;122:1258‐64. - PubMed
Alpert 1978 {published data only}
    1. Alpert M, Friedhoff A, Marcos L, Diamond F. Paradoxical reaction to L‐dopa in schizophrenic patients. American Journal of Psychiatry 1978;135:1329‐32. - PubMed
Alson 1964 {published data only}
    1. Alson E, Hastings K. The use of adjective check lists with psychotic patients: the problem of pseudo‐responses. Journal of Clinical Psychology 1964;20(4):462‐3. - PubMed
Aman 1985 {published data only}
    1. Aman MG, Singh NN. Dyskinetic symptoms in profoundly retarded residents following neuroleptic withdrawal and during methylphenidate treatment. Journal of Mental Deficiency Research 1985;29(2):187‐95. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Amin 1977 {published data only}
    1. Amin MM, Ban TA, Lehmann HE. A standard‐controlled clinical study with benzquinamide in the treatment of chronic schizophrenic patients. Psychopharmacology Bulletin 1977;13:20‐1. - PubMed
Ananth 1972 {published data only}
    1. Ananth JV, Vacaflor L, Kekhwa G, Sterlin C, Ban TA. Nicotinic acid in the treatment of newly admitted schizophrenic patients: a placebo‐controlled study. Internationale Zeitschrift Fur Klinische Pharmakologie Therapie und Toxikologie 1972;5(4):406‐10. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Andrews 1976 {published data only}
    1. Andrews P, Hall JN, Snaith RP. A controlled trial of phenothiazine withdrawal in chronic schizophrenic patients. British Journal of Psychiatry 1976;128:451‐5. - PubMed
Ashcroft 1961 {published data only}
    1. Ashcroft GW, MacDougall EJ, Barker PA. A comparison of tetrabenazine and chlorpromazine in chronic schizophrenia. Journal of Mental Science (British Journal of Psychiatry from 1963) 1961;107:287‐93. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Ayers 1984 {published data only}
    1. Ayers T, Liberman RP, Wallace CJ. Subjective response to antipsychotic drugs: failure to replicate predictions of outcome. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology 1984;4:89‐93. - PubMed
Azima 1954 {published data only}
    1. Azima H, Ogle W. Effects of Largactil in mental syndomes. Canadian Medical Association Journal 1954;71:116‐21. - PMC - PubMed
Bagadia 1981 {published data only}
    1. Bagadia VN, Shah LP, Pradhan PV, Doshi J, Abhyankar R. Evaluation of cognitive effects of ECT: preliminary observations. Indian Journal of Psychiatry 1981;23:324‐9. - PMC - PubMed
Ban 1977 {published data only}
    1. Ban TA, Lehmann HE, Deutsch M. Negative findings with megavitamins in schizophrenic patients ‐ preliminary report. Communications in Psychopharmacology 1977;1:119‐22. - PubMed
    1. Hoffer, J. Megavitamin treatment of schizophrenia. Canadian Psychiatric Association Journal 1975;20:492‐5. - PubMed
Beech 1990 {published data only}
    1. Beech A, Powell TJ, McWilliam J, Claridge GS. The effect of a small dose of chlorpromazine on a measure of 'cognitive inhibition'. Personality and Individual Differences 1990;11:1141‐5.
Benaim 1960 {published data only}
    1. Benaim S. The effect of chlorpromazine on the incidence of epileptic phenomena during insulin coma therapy: A statistical investigation. Journal of Mental Science 1960;106:317‐21. - PubMed
Bennett 1956 {published data only}
    1. Bennett A, Ford F, Turk RE. Clinical investigation of chlorpromazine and reserpine in private psychiatric practice. American Journal of Psychiatry 1956;112:782‐7. - PubMed
Blumberg 1964 {published data only}
    1. Blumberg AG, Klein DF, Pollack M. Effects of chlorpromazine and imipramine on systolic blood pressure in psychiatric patients: Relationships to age, diagnosis and initial blood pressure. Journal of Psychiatric Research 1964;2(1):51‐60. - PubMed
Blumberg 1969 {published data only}
    1. Blumberg AG, Klein DF. Chlorpromazine‐procyclidine and imipramine: effects on thyroid function in psychiatric patients. Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 1969;10:350‐4. - PubMed
Boullin 1975 {published data only}
    1. Boullin DJ, Woods HF, Grimes RP, Grahame‐Smith DG, Wiles D, Gelder MG, et al. Increased platelet aggregation responses to 5‐hydroxytryptamine in patients taking chlorpromazine. British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 1975;2:29‐35. - PMC - PubMed
Bowes 1956 {published data only}
    1. Bowes, HA. The ataractic drugs: the present position of chlorpromazine, frenquel, pacatal, and reserpine in the psychiatric hospital. American Journal of Psychiatry 1956;113:530‐9. - PubMed
Bressler 1971 {published data only}
    1. Bressler B, Friedel RO. A comparison between chlorpromazine and thiothixene in a Veterans Administration Hospital population. Psychosomatics 1971;12:275‐7. - PubMed
Brizer 1985 {published data only}
    1. Brizer DA, Hartman N, Sweeney J, Millman RB. Effect of methadone plus neuroleptics on treatment‐resistant chronic paranoid schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry 1985;142(9):1106‐7. - PubMed
Burnett 1975 {published data only}
    1. Burnett GB, Little SR, Graham N, Forrest AD. The assessment of thiothixene in chronic schizophrenia. A double‐blind controlled trial. Diseases of the Nervous System 1975;36:625‐9. - PubMed
Cabrera Gomez 1994 {published data only}
    1. Cabrera Gomez JA, Cordero Gutierrez JR, Fernandez Lopez O, Reyes Gutierrez B, Romero Garcia K, Simon Consuegra J, et al. Treatment of schizophrenic disorder, paranoid type, with intramuscular recombinant alpha‐2b interferon. Biotherapy 1994;7(1):27‐37. - PubMed
Caffey 1963 {published data only}
    1. Caffey E, Forrest I, Frank T, Klett CJ. Phenothiazine excretion in chronic schizophrenics. American Journal of Psychiatry 1963;120:578‐82. - PubMed
    1. Caffey EM, Diamond LS, Frank TV, Grasberger JC, Herman L, Klett CJ, et al. Discontinuation or reduction of chemotherapy in chronic schizophrenics. Journal of Chronic Diseases 1964;17(4):347‐58. - PubMed
Caffey 1975 {published data only}
    1. Caffey EMJ, Prien RF. Practical considerations on treatment with antipsychotic preparations [Prakticheskie soobrazheniia o lechenii antipsikhoticheskimi preparatami]. Zhurnal Nevropatologii i Psikhiatrii 1975;75:1399‐401. - PubMed
Campbell 1972 {published data only}
    1. Campbell M, Fish B, Shapiro T, Floyd A. Acute responses of schizophrenic children to a sedative and a 'stimulating' neuroleptic: a pharmacologic yardstick. Current Therapeutic Research 1972;14:759‐66. - PubMed
    1. Campbell M, Fish B, Shapiro T, Floyd A. Thiothixene in young disturbed children. A pilot study. Archives of General Psychiatry 1970;23:70‐2. - PubMed
Cardone 1969 {published data only}
    1. Cardone S, Olson R. Chlorpromazine and body image. Effects on chronic schizophrenics. Archives of General Psychiatry 1969;20:576‐82. - PubMed
Carrillo 1971 {published data only}
    1. Carrillo C. Pharmacologlal treatment of the emotionally unstable character disorder. Vth World Congress of Psychiatry. Ciudad de Mexico. 1971.
Casey 1960 {published data only}
    1. Casey JF, Bennet IF, Lindley CJ, Hollister LE, Gordon MH, Springer NN. Drug therapy in schizophrenia. A controlled study of the relative effectiveness of chlorpromazine, promazine, phenobarbital, and placebo. Archives of General Psychiatry 1960;2:210‐20. - PubMed
Casey 1961 {published data only}
    1. Casey JF, Hollister LE, Klett CJ, Lasky JJ, Caffey EM. Combined drug therapy of chronic schizophrenics. Controlled evaluation of placebo, dextro‐amphetamine, imipramine, isocarboxazid and trifluoperazine added to maintenance doses of chlorpromazine. American Journal of Psychiatry 1961;117:997‐1003. - PubMed
Chacon 1972 {published data only}
    1. Chacon C, Harper P. Clinical and work performance variables in phenothiazine therapy of schizophrenia. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 1973;49:65‐76. - PubMed
    1. Chacon Carlos, Harper P, Harvey GF. Work study in the assessment of the effects of phenothiazines in schizophrenia. Comprehensive Psychiatry 1972;13(6):549‐54. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Childers 1961 {published data only}
    1. Childers RT, Therrien R. A comparison of the effectiveness of triluoperazine and chlorpromazine in schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry 1961;118:552‐4. - PubMed
Chouinard 1977 {published data only}
    1. Chouinard G, Annable L, Kolivakis TN. Penfluridol in the maintenance treatment of schizophrenic patients newly discharged from a brief therapy unit. Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 1977;17(2‐3):162‐7. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Chouinard‐G 1983 {published data only}
    1. Chouinard‐G, Annable‐L. Fluspirilene in the treatment of newly admitted schizophrenic patients. Psychopharmacology Bulletin. 1983;19(1):136‐8. - PubMed
Claghorn 1983 {published data only}
    1. Claghorn J, Abuzzahab F, Wang R, Larson C, Gelenberg A, Klerman G, et al. The current status of clozapine. Psychopharmacology Bulletin 1983;19:138‐40.
Clark 1970c {published data only}
    1. Clark ML, Serafetinides EA, Wise JB, Colmore JP. Ocular pigment deposits: drug‐induced false‐positives. JAMA 1970;214:2339. - PubMed
Clark 1970d {published data only}
    1. Clark M, Dubowski K, Colmore J. The effect of chlorpromazine on serum cholesterol in chronic schizophrenic patients. Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 1970;11:883‐9. - PubMed
Clark 1975 {published data only}
    1. Clark ML, Kaul PN. A preliminary report on clinical response and blood levels of chlorpromazine and its sulfoxide during chlorpromazine therapy in chronic schizophrenic patients. In: Gottschalk LA, Merlis S editor(s). Pharmacokinetics of Psychoactive Drugs. New York: Spectrum Publications, 1976:191‐7.
    1. Clark ML, Kaul PN. A preliminary report on clinical response and blood levels of chlorpromazine and its sulfoxide during chlorpromazine therapy in chronic schizophrenic patients. Psychopharmacology Bulletin 1975;11:28‐30. - PubMed
    1. Clark ML, Kaul PN, Whitfield LR. Chlorpromazine kinetics and clinical response. Psychopharmacology Bulletin 1978;14:43‐5. - PubMed
Cobb 1956 {published data only}
    1. Cobb W. Changes in the electroencephalogram, the electrodermogram, and the electromyogram provoked by chlorpromazine in man. Abstracts of World Medicine 1956;20:177.
Cole 1967 {published data only}
    1. Cole JO, Schooler NR. Differences in clinical effects of three phenothiazines in "acute" schizophrenia. Diseases of the Nervous System 1967;28:369‐83. - PubMed
Coons 1962 {published data only}
    1. Coons WH, Boyd BA, White JG. Chlorpromazine, trifluoperazine and placebo with long term mental hospital patients. Canadian Psychiatric Association Journal 1962;7:159‐63. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Cowden 1956 {published data only}
    1. Cowden RC, Zax M, Hague JR, Finney RC. Chlorpromazine: alone and as an adjunct to group psychotherapy in the treatment of psychiatric patients. American Journal of Psychiatry 1956;4:898‐902. - PubMed
Crane 1970 {published data only}
    1. Crane GE. High doses of trifluperazine and tardive dyskinesia. Archives of Neurology 1970;22(2):176‐80. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Crane 1971 {published data only}
    1. Crane GE. Persistence of neurological symptoms due to neuroleptic drugs. American Journal of Psychiatry 1971;127:1407‐10. - PubMed
Crow 1986 {published data only}
    1. Crow TJ, MacMillan JF, Johnson AL, Johnstone EC. The Northwick Park study of first episodes of schizophrenia. II. A randomised controlled trial of prophylactic neuroleptic treatment. British Journal of Psychiatry 1986;148:120‐7. - PubMed
    1. Johnstone EC, Crow TJ, Johnson AL, MacMillan JF. The Northwick Park study of first episodes of schizophrenia. I. Presentation of the illness and problems relating to admission. British Journal of Psychiatry 1986;148:115‐20. - PubMed
    1. MacMillan JF, Crow TJ, Johnson AL, Johnstone EC. The Northwick Park study of first episodes of schizophrenia. III. Short‐term outcome in trial entrants and trial eligible patients. British Journal of Psychiatry 1986;148:128‐33. - PubMed
Curry 1972 {published data only}
    1. Curry SH, Adamson L. Double‐blind trial of fluphenazine decanoate. Lancet 1972;2:543‐4. - PubMed
Cutler 1957 {published data only}
    1. Cutler RP, Monroe JJ, Anderson TE. Effects of "tranquilizers" upon pathological activity in psychotic patients: II. Reserpine. Archives of Neurology and Psychiatry 1957;78:61‐8. - PubMed
Dally 1966 {published data only}
    1. Dally P, Sargant W. Treatment and outcome of anorexia nervosa. British Medical Journal 1966;2:793‐5. - PMC - PubMed
Danion 1992 {published data only}
    1. Danion JM, Peretti S, Grange D, Bilik M, Imbs JL, Singer L. Effects of chlorpromazine and lorazepam on explicit memory, repetition priming and cognitive skill learning in healthy volunteers. Psychopharmacology 1992;108(3):345‐51. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Daston 1958 {published data only}
    1. Daston PG. Stylus maze performance of chronic schizophrenics taking chlorpromazine. Journal of Consulting Psychology 1958;22(5):384. - PubMed
Daston 1959 {published data only}
    1. Daston PG. Effects of two phenothiazine drugs on concentrative attention span of chronic schizophrenics. Journal of Clinical Psychology 1959;15:106‐9. - PubMed
Davies 1973 {published data only}
    1. Davies AL, O'Leary J. The use of chlorpromazine in schizophrenia. Nursing Times 1973;69:1694‐5. - PubMed
Dean 1967 {published data only}
    1. Dean G. Mefenamic acid and chlorpromazine in porphyria variegata. South African Medical Journal 1967;41:925‐7. - PubMed
Denber 1955 {published data only}
    1. Denber HCB, Merlis S. Studies on Mescaline. VI. Therapeutic Aspects of the Mescaline‐Chlorpromazine Combination. Journal of Nervous and Mental Diseases 1955;122:463. - PubMed
Denber 1956 {published data only}
    1. Denber H, Bird EG. Chlorpromazine in the treatment of mental illness. III. The problem of depression. American Journal of Psychiatry 1956;112:1021. - PubMed
Denber 1957 {published data only}
    1. Denber HCB. Chlorpromazine‐diethazine in the treatment of depression. Diseases of the Nervous System 1957;18:76‐9. - PubMed
Den Boer 2000 {published data only}
    1. Boer JA, Vahlne JO, Post P, Heck AH, Daubenton F, Olbrich R. Ritanserin as add on medication to neuroleptic therapy for patients with chronic or subchronic schizophrenia. Human Psychopharmacology 2000;15(3):179‐89. - PubMed
Desager 1988 {published data only}
    1. Desager JP, Hulhoven R, Harvengt C, Hermann P, Guillet P, Thiercelin JF. Possible interactions between zolpidem, a new sleep inducer and chlorpromazine, a phenothiazine neuroleptic. Psychopharmacology Berlin 1988;96:63‐6. - PubMed
Douglas 1969 {published data only}
    1. Douglas KW, Hindley JP. A comparison of mesoridazine and chlorpromazine in chronic psychiatric patients. Journal of Clinical Pharmacology and The Journal of New Drugs 1969;9:176‐82. - PubMed
Downing 1963 {published data only}
    1. Downing RW, Ebert JN, Shubrooks SJ. Effect of phenothiazines on the thinking of acute schizophrenics. Perceptual and Motor Skills 1963;17(2):511‐20. - PubMed
Dube 1981 {published data only}
    1. Dube S, Sethi B. Efficacy of lithium in schizophrenia. Indian Journal of Psychiatry 1981;23(2):193‐9. - PMC - PubMed
Eitan 1991 {published data only}
    1. Eitan N, Levin Y, Ben‐Artzi E, Levy A, Neumann M. Effects of antipsychotic drugs on memory functions of schizophrenic patients. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 1992;85:74‐6. - PubMed
Ekdawi 1966 {published data only}
    1. Ekdawi MY, Fowke R. A controlled trial of anti‐parkinson drugs in drug‐induced parkinsonism. British Journal of Psychiatry 1966;112(487):633‐6. - PubMed
Elkes 1954 {published data only}
    1. Elkes J, Elkes C. Effect of chlorpromazine on the behaviour of chronically overactive psychotic patients. British Medical Journal 1954;2:560‐5. - PMC - PubMed
Feldman 1956 {published data only}
    1. Feldman PE, Lacy BS, Walker AE, Garrez NJ. A controlled, blind study of effects of thorazine on psychotic behavior. Bulletin of the Menninger Clinic 1956;20:25‐47. - PubMed
Fink 1958 {published data only}
    1. Fink M, Shaw R, Gross GE, Coleman FS. Comparative study of chlorpromazine and insulin coma in therapy of psychosis. Journal of the American Medical Association 1958;166(15):1846‐50. - PubMed
Fink 1965 {published data only}
    1. Fink M, Klein DF, Kramer JC. Clinical efficacy of chlorpromazine‐procyclidine combination, imipramine and placebo in depressive disorders. Psychopharmacologia 1965;7:27‐36. - PubMed
Fleischhacker 1995 {published data only}
    1. Fleischhacker W. Broadening treatment perspectives of schizophrenia: a clinical update on seroquel. 8th Congress of the European College of Neuropsychopharmacology; 1995 Sep 30 ‐ Oct 4; Venice, Italy. 1995.
Fleming 1958 {published data only}
    1. Fleming B, Currie J. Investigation of a new compound, B.W.203, and of Chlorpromazine in the treatment of psychosis. British Journal of Psychiatry 1958;104:749‐57. - PubMed
Foote 1958 {published data only}
    1. Foote E. Combined Chlorpromazine and Reserpine in the treatment of chronic psychotics. British Journal of Psychiatry 1958;104:201‐5. - PubMed
Forrest 1967 {published data only}
    1. Forrest GL, Bortner TW, Bakker CB. The role of personality variables in response to chlorpromazine, dextroamphetamine and placebo. Journal of Psychiatric Research 1967;5:281‐8. - PubMed
Freed 1956 {published data only}
    1. Freed H, Peifer CA. Treatment of hyperkinetic emotionally disturbed children with prolonged administration of chlorpromazine. American Journal of Psychiatry 1956;113:22. - PubMed
Freedman 1965 {published data only}
    1. Freedman N, Engelhardt D, Mann D, Margolis R, London S. Communication of body complaints and paranoid symptom change under conditions of phenothiazine treatment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 1965;1(4):310‐8. - PubMed
Freeman 1956 {published data only}
    1. Freeman H, Arnold AL, Cline HS. Effects of chlorpromazine and reserpine in chronic schizophrenic patients. Diseases of the Nervous System 1956;17:213‐9. - PubMed
    1. Freeman H, Cline HS. Effects of chlorpromazine on chronic lobotomized schizophrenic patients. A.M.A. Archives of Neurology and Psychiatry 1956;76:500‐7. - PubMed
Freeman 1973 {published data only}
    1. Freeman H. A double blind comparison of mesoridazine and chlorpromazine in chronic schizophrenics. Diseases of the Nervous System 1973;34(6):289‐93. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Friedhoff 1960 {published data only}
    1. Friedhoff A, Alpert M. The effect of chlorpromazine on the variability of motor task performance in schizophrenics. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 1960;131:110‐6. - PubMed
Fromm 1956 {published data only}
    1. Fromm GH, Forsberg IA. Controlled study on the value of chlorpromazine in allaying anxiety. Diseases of the Nervous System 1956;17:16‐9. - PubMed
Gaitz 1955 {published data only}
    1. Gaitz CM, Roy H, Thompson W, Kimbell I, Mullen AJ, Pokorny AD. Evaluation of Chlorpromazine in Comparison with other Methods of treatments of hospitalized psychiatric patients, using the lorr multidimensional scale for rating psychiatric patients. Psychiatric Research Reports 1955;1:1984.
Galbrecht 1968 {published data only}
    1. Galbrecht CR, Klett CJ. Predicting response to phenothiazines: the right drug for the right patient. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 1968;147:173‐83. - PubMed
Galdi 1988 {published data only}
    1. Galdi J, Bonato RR. Relationship of adverse drug reactions to length of hospital‐stay in genetically subgrouped schizophrenics. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 1988;33:816‐8. - PubMed
Gallant 1963 {published data only}
    1. Gallant D, Bishop M, Steele C, Noblin CD. The relationship between serotonin antagonism and tranquilizing activity. American Journal of Psychiatry 1963;119:882. - PubMed
Gallant 1967 {published data only}
    1. Gallant DM, Bishop MP, O'Meallie L. BL‐KR140: a controlled evaluation in chronic schizophrenic patients previously stabilized on chlorpromazine. Current Therapeutic Research 1967;9:447‐50. - PubMed
Gardner 1955 {published data only}
    1. Gardner MJ, Hawkins HM, Judah LN, Murphree OD. Objective measurement of psychiatric changes produced by chlorpromazine and reserpine in chronic schizophrenia. Psychiatric Research Reports 1955;1:77‐83.
Gardos 1968 {published data only}
    1. Gardos G, Rapkin RM, DiMascio A. Trifluoperazine and chlorpromazine in combination and individually. Current Therapeutic Research Clinical and Experimental 1968;10(12):609‐12. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Gardos 1976 {published data only}
    1. Gardos G, Cole J O. Maintenance antipsychotic therapy: is the cure worse than the disease?. American Journal of Psychiatry 1976;133:32‐6. - PubMed
Garfield 1962 {published data only}
    1. Garfield SL, Helper MM, Wilcott RC, Muffly R. Effects of chlorpromazine on behaviour in emotionally disturbed children. Journal of Nervous and Mental Diseases 1962;135:147‐54. - PubMed
Garmezy 1969 {published data only}
    1. Garmezy N. Effects of censure and chlorpromazine on visual discrimination behavior of schizophrenic and alcoholic patients. Proceedings of the Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association 1969;4(2):491‐2.
Gauthier 1967 {published data only}
    1. Gauthier R, Hillel J, Bordeleau JM, Tetreault L. Comparative study of trifluperidol and trifluoperazine in the treatment of acute schizophrenia. Union Medicale du Canada 1967;96:936‐43. - PubMed
Gendron 1973 {published data only}
    1. Gendron JL, Zimmermann RL, Schiele BC. A double blind comparison of AL 1021 and chlorpromazine in hospitalized schizophrenics. Current Therapeutic Research 1973;15(6):333‐6. - PubMed
Gibbs 1956 {published data only}
    1. Gibbs JJ, Wilkens B, Lauterbach CG. A controlled clinical psychiatric study of chlorpromazine. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Psychopathology 1957;18:269‐83. - PubMed
    1. Gibbs JJ, Wilkens B, Lauterbach CG. A controlled clinical psychiatric study of the drug chlorpromazine. American Journal of Psychiatry 1956;113:254‐5. - PubMed
Gilgash 1957 {published data only}
    1. Gilgash CA. Effects of Thorazine on Wechsler scores of adult catatonic schizophrenics. Psychological Reports 1957;3:561‐4.
Goldberg 1968 {published data only}
    1. Goldberg SC, Mattsson NB. Schizophrenic subtypes defined by response to drugs and placebo. Diseases of the Nervous System 1968;29(5):S153‐8. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Goldberg 1970 {published data only}
    1. Goldberg GJ, Brooke G, Townsend HR, Brahma RK, Hill GB. A comparison of oxypertine and chlorpromazine in chronic schizophrenia. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 1970;46(2):126‐35. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Goldberg 1972 {published data only}
    1. Goldberg S, Frosch W, Drossman A, Schooler N, Johnson G. Prediction of response to phenothiazines in schizophrenia. A crossvalidation study. Archives of General Psychiatry 1972;26:367‐73. - PubMed
Goldman 1955 {published data only}
    1. Goldman D. Treatment of psychotic states with chlorpromazine. Journal of the American Medical Association 1955;157:1274‐8. - PubMed
Good 1958 {published data only}
    1. Good WW, Sterling M, Holtzman WH. Termination of chlorpromazine with schizophrenic patients. American Journal of Psychiatry 1958;115:443‐8. - PubMed
    1. Mefferd RB, Labrosse EH, Gawienowski AM, Williams RJ. Influence of chlorpromazine on certain biochemical variables of chronic male schizophrenics. Journal of Nervous and Mental Diseases 1958;127:167‐79. - PubMed
Goodwin‐Austin 1971 {published data only}
    1. Godwin‐Austen RB, Clark T. Persistent phenothiazine dyskinesia treated with tetrabenazine. British Medical Journal 1971;4(778):25‐6. - PMC - PubMed
Goyne 1958 {published data only}
    1. Goyne J B, Groebner E, Pueblita M. Clinical Research ‐ Vesperin‐Chlorpromazine Therapy. Scientific Papers of the 114th Annual Meeting of the American Psychiatric Association. 1958:104‐5.
Graupner 1972 {published data only}
    1. Graupner OK, Kalman EV. Effects of various drugs on flicker fusion frequency. II. Phenothiazine derivatives (with reference to the dependence of the results on the chronological course of experiments [Die Flimmer‐Verschmelzung‐Frequenz unter dem Einfluss verschiedener Pharmaka. II. Phenothiazinderivate (mit einem Hinweis auf die Abhangigkeit der Ergebnisse vom zeitlichen Verlauf der Versuche)]. Psychopharmacologia 1972;27(4):343‐7. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Green 1996 {published data only}
    1. Green JF, McElholm A, King DJ. A comparison of the sedative and amnestic effects of chlorpromazine and lorazepam. Psychopharmacology 1996;128(1):67‐73. - PubMed
Green 1998 {published data only}
    1. Green JF, King DJ. Antisaccade and no‐saccade distractibilty with chlorpromazine and lorazepam. Schizophrenia Research 1998;29(1,2):117.
Greenberg 1966 {published data only}
    1. Greenberg LM, Roth S. Differential effects of abrupt versus gradual withdrawal of chlorpromazine in hospitalized chronic schizophrenic patients. American Journal of Psychiatry 1966;123:221‐6. - PubMed
Griffiths 1979 {published data only}
    1. Griffiths RR, Bigelow G, Liebson I. Human drug self‐administration: double‐blind comparison of pentobarbital, diazepam, chlorpromazine and placebo. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics 1979;210:301‐10. - PubMed
Guy 1978 {published data only}
    1. Guy W, Petrie W, Cleary P. The incidence of treatment emergent symptoms under chlorpromazine and placebo conditions. Psychopharmacology Bulletin 1978;14:22‐4. - PubMed
Hammond 1978 {published data only}
    1. Hammond NV, Gruzelier JH. Laterality, attention and rate effects in the auditory temporal discrimination of chronic schizophrenics ‐ the effect of treatment with chlorpromazine. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 1978;30:91‐103. - PubMed
Hamner 1996 {published data only}
    1. Hamner MB, Arvanitis LA, Miller BG, Link CGG, Hong WW. Plasma prolactin in schizophrenia subjects treated with seroquel (TM) (ICI 204,636). Psychopharmacology Bulletin 1996;32(1):107‐10. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Hankoff 1960 {published data only}
    1. Hankoff L, Engelhardt D, Freedman N, Mann D, Margolis R. Denial of illness in schizophrenic outpatients: effects of psychopharmacological treatment. Archives of General Psychiatry 1960;3:657‐64. - PubMed
Hanlon 1958 {published data only}
    1. Hanlon TE, Kurland AA, Esquibel AJ, Ota KY. A comparative study of chlorpromazine and triflupromazine in the management of the chronic hospitalized psychotic patient. Journal of Nervous and Mental Diseases 1958;127:17‐20. - PubMed
Hanlon 1960 {published data only}
    1. Hanlon TE, Wiener G, Kurland AA. The psychiatric physician and the phenothiazine tranquilizers. Journal of Nervous and Mental Diseases 1960;130:67‐71. - PubMed
Harper 1976 {published data only}
    1. Harper P, Chacon C. Work performance versus clinical assessment in the evaluation of phenothiazine therapy. British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 1976;3:50‐5. - PMC - PubMed
Hartley 1978 {published data only}
    1. Hartley L, Henry T, Couper‐Smartt J. Chlorpromazine and serial reaction performance. British Journal of Psychology 1978;69:271‐6. - PubMed
Hartley 1987 {published data only}
    1. Hartley LR, Coxon L, Spencer J. Pharmacological effects on lateralized behavior. Current Psychology Research and Reviews 1987;6:301‐12.
Hartley 1989 {published data only}
    1. Hartley LR, Strother N, Arnold PK, Mulligan B. Lateralization of emotional expression under a neuroleptic drug. Physiology and Behavior 1989;45:917‐21. - PubMed
Hartley 1991 {published data only}
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Hartmann 1973 {published data only}
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Haskell 1974 {published data only}
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Heilizer 1959 {published data only}
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Hekimian 1967 {published data only}
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Herrera 1988 {published data only}
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Hollis 1968 {published data only}
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Holt 1984 {published data only}
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Hrushka 1966 {published data only}
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Hughes 1967 {published data only}
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Hussar 1969 {published data only}
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Jones 1971 {published data only}
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Kabes 1982 {published data only}
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Keskiner 1970 {published data only}
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Kimbell 1971 {published data only}
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Kopell 1968 {published data only}
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Kordas 1968 {published data only}
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Kornetsky 1959 {published data only}
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Korol 1965 {published data only}
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Kovitz 1955 {published data only}
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Kugler 1980 {published data only}
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Kupfer 1971 {published data only}
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Kurland 1981 {published data only}
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Laurian 1981 {published data only}
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Levin 1959 {published data only}
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Levita 1961 {published data only}
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Lewis 1973 {published data only}
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Liberman 1973 {published data only}
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Little 1958 {published data only}
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Loranger 1968 {published data only}
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Lorr 1961 {published data only}
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Lyberi 1956 {published data only}
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Maculans 1964 {published data only}
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Mahal 1976 {published data only}
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Majewski 1968 {published data only}
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Marjerrison 1969 {published data only}
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Marrazzi 1972 {published data only}
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Mason‐Browne 1957 {published data only}
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Mattila 1994 {published data only}
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McClelland 1990 {published data only}
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Melnyk 1966 {published data only}
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Merry 1957 {published data only}
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Michaux 1966 {published data only}
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Milne 1960 {published data only}
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Milton 1978 {published data only}
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Mitchell 1956 {published data only}
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Patterson 1981 {published data only}
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Yang 2005 {published data only}
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金建烽, 2008 {published data only}
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