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Meta-Analysis
. 2014 Feb 26;2014(2):CD003440.
doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD003440.pub4.

Workplace interventions for smoking cessation

Kate Cahill  1 , Tim Lancaster
Affiliations
Meta-Analysis

Workplace interventions for smoking cessation

Kate Cahill et al. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. .

Abstract

Background: The workplace has potential as a setting through which large groups of people can be reached to encourage smoking cessation.

Objectives: 1. To categorize workplace interventions for smoking cessation tested in controlled studies and to determine the extent to which they help workers to stop smoking.2. To collect and evaluate data on costs and cost effectiveness associated with workplace interventions.

Search methods: We searched the Cochrane Tobacco Addiction Group Specialized Register (July 2013), MEDLINE (1966 - July 2013), EMBASE (1985 - June 2013), and PsycINFO (to June 2013), amongst others. We searched abstracts from international conferences on tobacco and the bibliographies of identified studies and reviews for additional references.

Selection criteria: We selected interventions conducted in the workplace to promote smoking cessation. We included only randomized and quasi-randomized controlled trials allocating individuals, workplaces, or companies to intervention or control conditions.

Data collection and analysis: One author extracted information relating to the characteristics and content of all kinds of interventions, participants, outcomes and methods of the studies, and a second author checked them. For this update we have conducted meta-analyses of the main interventions, using the generic inverse variance method to generate odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals.

Main results: We include 57 studies (61 comparisons) in this updated review. We found 31 studies of workplace interventions aimed at individual workers, covering group therapy, individual counselling, self-help materials, nicotine replacement therapy, and social support, and 30 studies testing interventions applied to the workplace as a whole, i.e. environmental cues, incentives, and comprehensive programmes. The trials were generally of moderate to high quality, with results that were consistent with those found in other settings. Group therapy programmes (odds ratio (OR) for cessation 1.71, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.05 to 2.80; eight trials, 1309 participants), individual counselling (OR 1.96, 95% CI 1.51 to 2.54; eight trials, 3516 participants), pharmacotherapies (OR 1.98, 95% CI 1.26 to 3.11; five trials, 1092 participants), and multiple intervention programmes aimed mainly or solely at smoking cessation (OR 1.55, 95% CI 1.13 to 2.13; six trials, 5018 participants) all increased cessation rates in comparison to no treatment or minimal intervention controls. Self-help materials were less effective (OR 1.16, 95% CI 0.74 to 1.82; six trials, 1906 participants), and two relapse prevention programmes (484 participants) did not help to sustain long-term abstinence. Incentives did not appear to improve the odds of quitting, apart from one study which found a sustained positive benefit. There was a lack of evidence that comprehensive programmes targeting multiple risk factors reduced the prevalence of smoking.

Authors' conclusions: 1. We found strong evidence that some interventions directed towards individual smokers increase the likelihood of quitting smoking. These include individual and group counselling, pharmacological treatment to overcome nicotine addiction, and multiple interventions targeting smoking cessation as the primary or only outcome. All these interventions show similar effects whether offered in the workplace or elsewhere. Self-help interventions and social support are less effective. Although people taking up these interventions are more likely to stop, the absolute numbers who quit are low.2. We failed to detect an effect of comprehensive programmes targeting multiple risk factors in reducing the prevalence of smoking, although this finding was not based on meta-analysed data. 3. There was limited evidence that participation in programmes can be increased by competitions and incentives organized by the employer, although one trial demonstrated a sustained effect of financial rewards for attending a smoking cessation course and for long-term quitting. Further research is needed to establish which components of this trial contributed to the improvement in success rates.4. Further research would be valuable in low-income and developing countries, where high rates of smoking prevail and smoke-free legislation is not widely accepted or enforced.

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Conflict of interest statement

None known

Figures

1
1
Risk of bias summary: review authors' judgements about each risk of bias item for each included study. Empty cells are for multiple studies within a single study report.
1.1
1.1. Analysis
Comparison 1 Individual Treatments, Outcome 1 Group behavioural therapy (various endpoints).
1.2
1.2. Analysis
Comparison 1 Individual Treatments, Outcome 2 Individual counselling (various endpoints).
1.3
1.3. Analysis
Comparison 1 Individual Treatments, Outcome 3 Any self‐help intervention (various endpoints).
1.4
1.4. Analysis
Comparison 1 Individual Treatments, Outcome 4 Pharmacological treatments (various endpoints).
1.5
1.5. Analysis
Comparison 1 Individual Treatments, Outcome 5 Social support (various endpoints).
2.1
2.1. Analysis
Comparison 2 Worksite Treatments, Outcome 1 Environmental support (various endpoints).
2.2
2.2. Analysis
Comparison 2 Worksite Treatments, Outcome 2 Incentives (various endpoints).
2.3
2.3. Analysis
Comparison 2 Worksite Treatments, Outcome 3 Comprehensive interventions.
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    1. Okamura T, Tanaka T, Takebayashi T, Nakagawa H, Yamato H, Yoshita K, et al. Methodlogical issues for a large‐scale intervention trial of lifestyle modification: interim assessment of the High‐Risk and Population Starategy for Occupational Health Promotion (HIPOP‐OHP) Study. Environmental Health and Preventive Medicine 2004;9(4):137‐43. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Tanaka H, Yamato H, Tanaka T, Kadowaki T, Okamura T, Nakamura M. Effectiveness of a low‐intensity intra‐worksite intervention on smoking cessation in Japanese employees: a three‐year intervention trial. Journal of Occupational Health 2006;48(3):175‐82. - PubMed
Terazawa 2001 {published data only}
    1. Terazawa T, Mamiya T, Masui S, Nakamura M. [The effect os smoking cessation counselling at health checkup] [in Japanese]. Sangyo Eiseigaku Zasshi 2001;43(6):207‐13. - PubMed
Volpp 2009 {published data only}
    1. Kim A, Kamyab K, Zhu J, Volpp K. Why are financial incentives not effective at influencing some smokers to quit? Results of a process evaluation of a worksite trial assessing the efficacy of financial incentives for smoking cessation. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine 2011;53(1):62‐7. - PubMed
    1. Kim AE, Towers A, Renaud J, Zhu J, Shea JA, Galvin R, et al. Application of the RE‐AIM framework to evaluate the impact of a worksite‐based financial incentive intervention for smoking cessation. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine 2012;54(5):610‐4. - PubMed
    1. Volpp KG, Das A. Comparative effectiveness ‐ thinking beyond medication A versus medication B. New England Journal of Medicine 2009;361(4):331‐3. - PubMed
    1. Volpp KG, Troxel AB, Pauly MV, Glick HA, Puig A, Asch DA, et al. A randomized controlled trial of financial incentives for smoking cessation. New England Journal of Medicine 2009;360(7):699‐709. - PubMed
Willemsen 1998 {published data only}
    1. Willemsen M, Vries H, Breukelen G, Genders R. Long‐term effectiveness of two Dutch worksite smoking cessation programs. Health Education and Behavior 1998;25(4):418‐35. - PubMed
Windsor 1988 {published data only}
    1. Windsor RA, Lowe JB. Behavioral impact and cost analysis of a worksite self‐help smoking cessation program. Progress in Clinical and Biological Research 1989;293:231‐42. - PubMed
    1. Windsor RA, Lowe JB, Bartlett EE. The effectiveness of a worksite self‐help smoking cessation program: a randomized trial. Journal of Behavioral Medicine 1988;11(4):407‐21. - PubMed

References to studies excluded from this review

Addley 2001 {published data only}
    1. Addley K, McQuillan P, Ruddle M. Creating healthy workplaces in Northern Ireland: evaluation of a lifestyle and physical activity assessment programme. Occupational Medicine 2001;51(7):439‐49. - PubMed
Armitage 2007 {published data only}
    1. Armitage CJ. Efficacy of a brief worksite intervention to reduce smoking: the role of behavioral and implementation intentions. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology 2007;12(4):376‐90. - PubMed
Baile 1991 {published data only}
    1. Baile WF, Gibertini M, Ulschak F, Snow‐Antle S, Hann D. Impact of a hospital smoking ban: changes in tobacco use and employee attitudes. Addictive Behaviors 1991;16(6):419‐426. - PubMed
Barbeau 2006 {published data only}
    1. Barbeau EM, Li Y, Calderon P, Hartman C, Quinn M, Markkanen P, et al. Results of a union‐based smoking cessation intervention for apprentice iron workers (United States). Cancer Causes and Control 2006;17(1):53‐61. - PubMed
Bertera 1990 {published data only}
    1. Bertera RL, Oehl LK, Telepchak JM. Self‐help versus group approaches to smoking cessation in the workplace: eighteen month follow‐up and cost analysis. American Journal of Health Promotion 1990;4(3):187‐92. - PubMed
Borland 1991b {published data only}
    1. Borland R, Owen N, Hill D, Schofield P. Predicting attempts and sustained cessation of smoking after the introduction of workplace smoking bans. Health Psychology 1991;10(5):336‐42. - PubMed
Borland 1995 {published data only}
    1. Borland R, Owen N. Need to smoke in the context of workplace smoking bans. Preventive Medicine 1995;24:59‐60. - PubMed
Brenner 1992 {published data only}
    1. Brenner H, Mielck A. Smoking prohibition in the workplace and smoking cessation in the Federal Republic of Germany. Preventive Medicine 1992;21(2):252‐61. - PubMed
Brenner 1994 {published data only}
    1. Brenner H, Fleischle B. Smoking regulations at the workplace and smoking behaviour: a study from Southern Germany. Preventive Medicine 1994;23(2):230‐4. - PubMed
Brigham 1994 {published data only}
    1. Brigham J, Gross J, Stitzer ML, Felch LJ. Effects of a restricted worksite smoking policy on employees who smoke. American Journal of Public Health 1994;84(5):773‐8. - PMC - PubMed
Broder 1993 {published data only}
    1. Broder I, Pilger C, Corey P. Environment and well‐being before and following smoking ban in office buildings. Canadian Journal of Public Health 1993;84(4):254‐8. - PubMed
Bunger 2003 {published data only}
    1. Bunger J, Lanzerath I, Ruhnau P, Görlitz A, Fischer C, Kott J, et al. [Company health plan: Evaluation of interventions for the reduction of cardiovascular risks] of cardiovascular risks Operational demand for health: Evaluation from interventions to the lowering of cardiovascular risks [Operational demand for health: Evaluation of interventions for the reduction of cardiovascular risks] [Betriebliche Gesundheitsforderung: Evaluation von Interventionen zur Senkung kardiovascularer Risiken [in German]]. Arbeitsmedizin Sozialmedizin Umweltmedizin 2003;8:421‐5.
Burling 1989 {published data only}
    1. Burling TA, Marotta J, Gonzalez R, Moltzen JO, Eng AM, Schmidt GA, et al. Computerized smoking cessation program for the worksite: treatment outcome and feasibility. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 1989;57(5):619‐22. - PubMed
Burling 1994 {published data only}
    1. Burling TA, Seidner AL, Gaither DE. A computer‐directed program for smoking cessation treatment. Journal of Substance Abuse 1994;6(4):427‐31. - PubMed
Burling 2000 {published data only}
    1. Burling AS, Burling TA. A work in progress: Effectiveness of a comprehensive internet‐delivered interactive multimedia stop smoking program. Presented at the 34th Annual Convention of the Association for the Advancement of Behavior Therapy, New Orleans, LA, November 2000.
Busch 2005 {published data only}
    1. Busch M. Comparison of two programmes to help apprentices of a large corporation stop smoking. Arbeitsmedizin Sozialmedizin Umweltmedizin 2005;40:70‐3.
Campbell 2000 {published data only}
    1. Campbell MK, Tessaro I, DeVellis B, Benedict S, Kelsey K, Belton L, et al. Tailoring and targeting a worksite health promotion program to address multiple health behaviors among blue‐collar women. American Journal of Health Promotion 2000;14(5):306‐13. - PubMed
Choi 2007 {published data only}
    1. Choi KS, Lee CH, Kim SY, Choi TS, Ryu SH. Effect of nicotine patches on craving in a workplace smoking cessation program. European Neuropsychopharmacology. 2007; Vol. 17:S561‐S562.
Conrad 1996 {published data only}
    1. Conrad KM, Campbell RT, Edington D, Faust HS, Vilnius D. The worksite environment as a cue to smoking reduction. Research in Nursing and Health 1996;19(1):21‐31. - PubMed
Cooreman 1997 {published data only}
    1. Cooreman J, Mesbah H, Leynaert B, Segala C, Pretet S. Evaluation of the impact of a smoking ban in a large Paris hospital. Semaine des Hopitaux 1997;73:317‐23.
Cornfeld 2002 {published data only}
    1. Cornfeld MJ, Schnoll RA, Tofani SH, Babb JS, Miller SM, Henigan‐Peel T, et al. Implementation of a comprehensive cancer control program at the worksite: year one summary report. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine 2002;44(5):398‐406. - PubMed
Dalsey 2009 {published data only}
    1. Dalsey E, Park HS. Implication of organizational health policy on organizational attraction. Health Communication 2009;24(1):71‐81. - PubMed
Daughton 1992 {published data only}
    1. Daughton DM, Andrews CE, Orona CP, Patil KD, Rennard SI. Total indoor smoking ban and smoker behaviour. Preventive Medicine 1992;21(5):670‐6. - PubMed
Dawley 1984 {published data only}
    1. Dawley HH, Fleischer BJ, Dawley LT. Smoking cessation with hospital employees: an example of worksite smoking cessation. International Journal of the Addictions 1984;19(3):327‐34. - PubMed
Dawley 1993 {published data only}
    1. Dawley LT, Dawley HH, Glasgow RE, Rice J, Correa P. Worksite smoking control, discouragement, and cessation. International Journal of the Addictions 1993;28(8):719‐33. - PubMed
Eisner 1998 {published data only}
    1. Eisner MD, Smith AK, Blanc PD. Bartenders' respiratory health after establishment of smoke‐free bars and taverns. JAMA 1998;280(22):1909‐14. - PubMed
Emont 1992 {published data only}
    1. Emont SL, Cummings KM. Using a low‐cost, prize‐drawing incentive to improve recruitment rate at a work‐site smoking cessation clinic. Journal of Occupational Medicine 1992;34(8):771‐4. - PubMed
Eriksen 2005 {published data only}
    1. Eriksen W. Work factors and smoking cessation in nurses' aides: a prospective cohort study. BMC Public Health 2005;5:142. - PMC - PubMed
Etter 1999 {published data only}
    1. Etter JF, Ronchi A, Perneger T. Short‐term impact of a university‐based smoke‐free campaign. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 1999;53(11):710‐5. - PMC - PubMed
Farkas 1999 {published data only}
    1. Farkas AJ, Gilpin EA, Distefan JM, Pierce JP. The effects of household and workplace smoking restrictions on quitting behaviours. Tobacco Control 1999;8(3):261‐5. - PMC - PubMed
Farrelly 1999 {published data only}
    1. Farrelly MC, Evans WN, Sfekas AE. The impact of workplace smoking bans: results from a national survey. Tobacco Control 1999;8(3):272‐7. - PMC - PubMed
Fine 2004 {published data only}
    1. Fine A, Ward M, Burr M, Tudor‐Smith C, Kingdon A. Health promotion in small workplaces ‐ a feasibility study. Health Education Journal 2004;63:334‐46.
Franchin 2011 {published data only}
    1. Franchin D, Antonioli L, Cremaschini M, Moretti R, Rocca G, Prestipino A, et al. Workplace health promotion: description and preliminary results of ASL of Bergamo integrated [Promuovera la salute in azienda: descrizione e primi risultati di un intervento interdisciplinare dell'ASL di Bergamo]. Giornale Italiano di Medicina del Lavoro e Ergonomia 2011;33(2 Suppl):51‐6. - PubMed
Glasgow 1997 {published data only}
    1. Glasgow RE, Cummings KM, Hyland A. Relationship of worksite smoking policy to changes in employee tobacco use: findings from COMMIT. Community Intervention Trial for Smoking Cessation. Tobacco Control 1997;6(Suppl 2):209‐16. - PMC - PubMed
Gomel 1993b {published data only}
    1. Gomel M, Oldenburg B, Lemon J, Owen N, Westbrook F. Pilot‐study of the effects of a workplace smoking ban on indices of smoking, cigarette craving, stress and other health behaviors. Psychology and Health 1993;8(4):223‐9.
Gottlieb 1990a {published data only}
    1. Gottlieb NH, Nelson A. A systematic effort to reduce smoking at the worksite. Health Education Quarterly 1990;17(1):99‐118. - PubMed
Graham 2007 {published data only}
    1. Graham AL, Cobb NK, Raymond L, Sill S, Young J. Effectiveness of an internet‐based worksite smoking cessation intervention at 12 months. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine 2007;49(8):821‐8. - PubMed
Gritz 1988 {published data only}
    1. Gritz ER, Marcus AC, Berman BA, Read LL, Kanim LEA, Reeder SJ. Evaluation of a worksite self‐help smoking cessation program for registered nurses. American Journal of Health Promotion 1988;3(2):26‐35. - PubMed
Hagimoto 2007 {published data only}
    1. Hagimoto A, Masui S, Nakamura M, Bai Y, Oshima A. Effects of skill level on individual behavioral counselling for smoking cessation. Nippon Koshu Eisei Zasshi (Japanese Journal of Public Health) 2007;54(8):486‐95. - PubMed
Hailstone 2005 {published data only}
    1. Hailstone S, Wyndham A, Mitchell E. Delivering smoking cessation information in the workplace using Quit Online. New South Wales Public Health Bulletin 2005;16(1‐2):18‐22. - PubMed
He 1997 {published data only}
    1. He D, Berg JE, Høstmark AT. Effects of acupuncture on smoking cessation or reduction for motivated smokers. Preventive Medicine 1997;26(2):208‐214. - PubMed
Heloma 2001 {published data only}
    1. Heloma A, Jaakkola MS, Kahkonen E, Reijula K. The short‐term impact of national smoke‐free workplace legislation on passive smoking and tobacco use. American Journal of Public Health 2001;91(9):1416‐8. - PMC - PubMed
Helyer 1998 {published data only}
    1. Helyer AJ, Brehm WT, Gentry NO, Pittman TA. Effectiveness of a worksite smoking cessation program in the military. Program evaluation. American Association of Occupational Health Nurses Journal 1998;46(5):238‐45. - PubMed
Hope 1999 {published data only}
    1. Hope A, Kelleher C, O'Connor M. Lifestyle and cancer: the relative effects of a workplace health promotion program across gender and social class. American Journal of Health Promotion 1999;13(6):315‐8. - PubMed
Hotta 2007 {published data only}
    1. Hotta K, Kinumi K, Naito K, Kuroki K, Sakane H, Imai A, et al. An intensive group therapy programme for smoking cessation using nicotine patches and internet mailing support in a university setting. International Journal of Clinical Practice 2007;61(12):1997‐2001. - PubMed
Hudzinski 1994 {published data only}
    1. Hudzinski LG, Sirois PA. Changes in smoking behavior and body weight after implementation of a non smoking policy in the workplace. Southern Medical Journal 1994;87(3):322‐7. - PubMed
Humerfelt 1998 {published data only}
    1. Humerfelt S, Eide GE, Kvale G, Aaro LE, Gulsvik. Effectiveness of postal smoking cessation advice: a randomized controlled trial in young men with reduced FEV1 and asbestos exposure. European Respiratory Journal 1998;11(2):284‐90. - PubMed
Hunt 2003a {published data only}
    1. Hunt MK, Fagan P, Lederman R, Stoddard A, Frazier L, Girod K, et al. Feasibility of implementing intervention methods in an adolescent worksite tobacco control study. Tobacco Control 2003;12 Suppl 4:IV40‐5. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Sorensen G, Fagan P, Hunt MK, Stoddard AM, Girod K, Eisenberg M, et al. Changing channels for tobacco control with youth: developing an intervention for working teens. Health Education Research 2004;19(3):250‐60. - PubMed
Hunt 2003b {published data only}
    1. Hunt MK, Stoddard AM, Barbeau E, Goldman R, Wallace L, Gutheil C, et al. Cancer prevention for working class, multiethnic populations through small businesses: the healthy directions study. Cancer Causes and Control 2003;14(8):749‐60. - PubMed
Hutter 2006 {published data only}
    1. Hutter HP, Moshammer H, Neuberger M. Smoking cessation at the workplace: 1 year success of short seminars. International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health 2006;79(1):42‐8. - PubMed
Hwang 2012 {published data only}
    1. Hwang GS, Jung HS, Yi Y, Yoon C, Choi JW. Smoking cessation intervention using stepwise exercise incentives for male workers in the workplace. Asia‐Pacific Journal of Public Health 2012;24(1):82‐90. - PubMed
Izuno 1990 {published data only}
    1. Izuno T, Yoshida K, Shimada N, Muto T. An epidemiological study of health behavior and health consciousness in smoking behavior modification. Nihon Koshu Eisei Zasshi (Japanese Journal of Public Health) 1990;37(5):308‐14. - PubMed
Jason 1990 {published data only}
    1. Jason LA, Jayaraj S, Blitz CC, Michaels MH, Klett LE. Incentives and competition in a worksite smoking cessation intervention. American Journal of Public Health 1990;80(2):205‐6. - PMC - PubMed
Jeffery 1988 {published data only}
    1. Jeffery RW, Pheley AM, Forster JL, Kramer FM, Snell MK. Payroll contracting for smoking cessation: a worksite pilot study. American Journal of Preventive Medicine 1988;4(2):83‐6. - PubMed
Kadowaki 2004 {published data only}
    1. Kadowaki T, Okamura T, Funakoshi T, Okayama A, Kanda H, Miyamatsu N, et al. Effectiveness of annual interventions for smoking cessation in an occupational setting in Japan. Environmental Health and Preventive Medicine 2004;9(4):161‐4. - PMC - PubMed
Kinne 1993 {published data only}
    1. Kinne S, Kristal AR, White E, Hunt J. Worksite smoking policies: their population impact in Washington State. American Journal of Public Health 1993;83(7):1031‐3. - PMC - PubMed
Klesges 1986 {published data only}
    1. Klesges RC, Vasey MM, Glasgow RE. A worksite smoking modification competition: potential for public health impact. American Journal of Public Health 1986;76(2):198‐200. - PMC - PubMed
Koffman 1998 {published data only}
    1. Koffman DM, Lee JW, Hopp JW, Emont SL. The impact of including incentives and competitions in a workplace smoking cessation program on quit rates. American Journal of Health Promotion 1998;13(2):105‐10. - PubMed
Kornitzer 1987 {published data only}
    1. Kornitzer M, Kittel F, Dramaix M, Bourdoux P. A double blind study of 2 mg versus 4 mg nicotine‐gum in an industrial setting. Journal of Psychosomatic Research 1987;31(2):171‐6. - PubMed
Kunitsuka 2002 {published data only}
    1. Kunitsuka K, Yamatsu K, Adachi Y. A correspondence behavioral approach for 6 lifestyle's improvements in a workplace. Nippon Koshu Eisei Zasshi (Japanese Journal of Public Health) 2002;49(6):525‐34. - PubMed
Longo 1996 {published data only}
    1. Longo DR, Brownson RC, Johnson JC, Hewett JE, Kruse RL, Novotny TE, et al. Hospital smoking bans and employee smoking behavior: results of a national survey. JAMA 1996;275(16):1252‐7. - PubMed
Longo 2001 {published data only}
    1. Longo DR, Johnson JC, Kruse RL, Brownson RC, Hewett JE. A prospective investigation of the impact of smoking bans on tobacco cessation and relapse. Tobacco Control 2001;10(3):267‐72. - PMC - PubMed
Lowe 1987 {published data only}
    1. Lowe JB, Windsor RA, Post KL. Effectiveness of impersonal versus interpersonal methods to recruit employees into a worksite quit smoking program. Addictive Behaviors 1987;12(3):281‐4. - PubMed
Maheu 1989 {published data only}
    1. Maheu MM, Gevirtz RN, Sallis JF, Schneider NG. Competition/cooperation in worksite smoking cessation using nicotine gum. Preventive Medicine 1989;18(6):867‐76. - PubMed
Makrides 2008 {published data only}
    1. Makrides L, Dagenais GR, Chockalingam A, LeLorier J, Kishchuk N, Richard J, et al. Evaluation of a workplace health program to reduce coronary risk factors. Clinical Governance 2008;13(2):95‐105.
Matson‐Koffman 1998 {published data only}
    1. Matson‐Koffman D, Lee JW, Hopp JW, Emont SL. The impact of including incentives and competition in a workplace smoking cessation program on quit rates. American Journal of Health Promotion 1998;13(2):105‐11. - PubMed
McMahon 2001 {published data only}
    1. McMahon SD, King C, Mautz B, Jason LA, Rossi JS, Redding CA. Worksite interventions: a methodological exploration and pilot study promoting behavior change. Journal of Primary Prevention 2001;22(2):103‐19.
McMahon 2002 {published data only}
    1. McMahon A, Kelleher CC, Helly G, Duffy E. Evaluation of a workplace cardiovascular health promotion programme in the Republic of Ireland. Health Promotion International 2002;17(4):297‐308. - PubMed
Musich 2003 {published data only}
    1. Musich S, McDonald T, Hirschland D, Edington DW. Examination of risk status transitions among active employees in a comprehensive worksite health promotion program. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine 2003;45(4):393‐9. - PubMed
Muto 1998 {published data only}
    1. Muto T, Nakamura M, Oshima A. Evaluation of a smoking cessation program implemented in the workplace. Industrial Health 1998;36(4):369‐71. - PubMed
Nepps 1984 {published data only}
    1. Nepps MM. A minimal contact smoking cessation program at the worksite. Addictive Behaviors 1984;9(3):291‐4. - PubMed
Nerín 2002 {published data only}
    1. Nerín I, Guillén D, Más A, Nuviala JA, Hernandez MJ. [Evaluation of a workplace anti‐smoking program at a company with 640 employees] (Spanish). Archivos de Bronchoneumologia 2002;38:267‐71. - PubMed
Nerín 2005 {published data only}
    1. Nerín I, Crucelaegui A, Más A, Villalba JA, Guillén D, Gracia A. Results of a comprehensive workplace program for the prevention and treatment of smoking addiction. Archivos de Bronconeumologia 2005;41(4):197‐201. - PubMed
O'Connell 2006 {published data only}
    1. O'Connell M, Comerford BP, Wall HK, Yanchou‐Njike V, Faridi Z, Katz DL. Impediment profiling for smoking cessation: application in the workplace. American Journal of Health Promotion 2006;21(2):97‐100. - PubMed
Offord 1992 {published data only}
    1. Offord KP, Hurt RD, Berge KG, Frusti DK, Schmidt L. Effects of the implementation of a smoke‐free policy in a media center. Chest 1992;102(5):1531‐6. - PubMed
Olive 1996 {published data only}
    1. Olive KE, Ballard JA. Changes in employee smoking behavior after implementation of restrictive smoking policies. Southern Medical Journal 1996;89(7):699‐706. - PubMed
Olsen 1990 {published data only}
    1. Olsen GW, Shellenberger RJ, Lacey SE, Fishbeck WA, Bond GG. A smoking cessation incentive program for chemical employees: design and evaluation. American Journal of Preventive Medicine 1990;6(4):200‐7. - PubMed
Olsen 1991 {published data only}
    1. Olsen GW, Lacey SE, Sprafka JM, Arceneaux TG, Potts TA, Kravat BA, et al. A 5‐year evaluation of a smoking incentive program for chemical employees. Preventive Medicine 1991;20(6):774‐84. - PubMed
Ong 2005 {published data only}
    1. Ong MK, Glantz SA. Free nicotine replacement therapy programs vs implementing smoke‐free workplaces: a cost‐effectiveness comparison. American Journal of Public Health 2005;95(6):969‐75. - PMC - PubMed
Park 2007 {published data only}
    1. Park MK, Kang KS, Kim NY. Effects of a smoking cessation program on amount of smoking and nicotine dependence and self‐efficacy of smoking cessation for smoking workers. Taehan Kanhoe Hakhoe Chi 2007;37(7):1073‐9. - PubMed
Patten 1995 {published data only}
    1. Patten CA, Gilpin E, Cavin SW, Pierce JP. Workplace smoking policy and changes in smoking behaviour in California: a suggested association. Tobacco Control 1995;4(1):36‐41.
Pegus 2002 {published data only}
    1. Pegus C, Bazzarre TL, Brown JS, Menzin J. Effect of the Heart At Work program on awareness of risk factors, self‐efficacy, and health behaviors. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine 2002;44(3):228‐36. - PubMed
Prior 2005 {published data only}
    1. Prior JO, Melle G, Crisinel A, Burnand B, Cornuz J, Darioli R. Evaluation of a multicomponent worksite health promotion program for cardiovascular risk factors ‐ correcting for the regression towards the mean effect. Preventive Medicine 2005;40(3):259‐67. - PubMed
Richmond 1985 {published data only}
    1. Richmond RL, Webster IW. A smoking cessation programme for use in general practice. The Medical Journal of Australia 1985;142(3):190‐4. - PubMed
Rosenstock 1986 {published data only}
    1. Rosenstock IM, Stergachis A, Heaney C. Evaluation of a smoking prohibition policy in a health maintenance organization. American Journal of Public Health 1986;76(8):1014‐5. - PMC - PubMed
Roto 1987 {published data only}
    1. Roto P, Ojala A, Sundman K, Jokinen K, Peltomakl R. Nicotine gum and withdrawal from smoking. Suomen Laakarllehtl 1987;36:3445‐8.
Ryan 2002 {published data only}
    1. Ryan PJ, Forster NJD, Holder D. Evaluation of a worksite smoking‐cessation program. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine 2002; Vol. 44, issue 8:703‐4. - PubMed
Schlegel 1983 {published data only}
    1. Schlegel RP, Manske SR, Shannon ME. Butt out! Evaluation of the Canadian Armed Forces smoking cessation program. In: Forbes WF, Frecker RC, Nostbakken DJ editor(s). Proceedings of the Fifth World Conference on Smoking and Health. Pntario: Canadian Council on Smoking and Health, 1983.
Scott 1986 {published data only}
    1. Scott RR, Prue DM, Denier CA, King AC. Worksite smoking intervention with nursing professionals: Long‐term outcome and relapse assessment. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 1986;54(6):809‐13. - PubMed
Shipley 1988 {published data only}
    1. Shipley RH, Orleans CT, Wilbur CS, Piserchia PV, McFadden DW. Effect of the Johnson & Johnson Live for Life program on employee smoking. Preventive Medicine 1988;17(1):25‐34. - PubMed
Sloan 1990 {published data only}
    1. Sloan RP, Dimberg L, Welkowitz LA, Kristiansen MA. Cessation and relapse in a workplace quit‐smoking contest. Preventive Medicine 1990;19(4):414‐23. - PubMed
Sorensen 1991 {published data only}
    1. Sorensen G, Rigotti N, Rosen A, Pinney J, Prible R. Effects of a worksite non‐smoking policy: evidence for increased cessation. American Journal of Public Health 1991;81(2):202‐4. - PMC - PubMed
Sorensen 2010 {published data only}
    1. Sorensen G, Stoddard A, Quintiliani L, Ebbeling C, Nagler E, Yang M, et al. Tobacco use cessation and weight management among motor freight workers: results of the gear up for health study. Cancer Causes & Control 2010;21(12):2113‐22. - PMC - PubMed
Stoddard 2005 {published data only}
    1. Stoddard AM, Fagan P, Sorensen G, Hunt MK, Frazier L, Girod K. Reducing cigarette smoking among working adolescents: results from the SMART study. Cancer Causes & Control 2005;16(10):1159‐64. - PubMed
Stoddard 2008 {published data only}
    1. Stoddard JL, Augustson EM, Moser RP. Effect of adding a virtual community (bulletin board) to smokefree.gov: randomized controlled trial. Journla of Medical Internet Research 2008;10(5):e53. - PMC - PubMed
Sun 2009 {published data only}
    1. Sun HQ, Guo S, Chen DF, Jiang ZN, Liu Y, Di XL, et al. Family support and employment as predictors of smoking cessation success: a randomized, double‐blind, placebo‐controlled trial of nicotine sublingual tablets in Chinese smokers. American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse 2009;35(3):183‐8. - PubMed
Terry 2010 {published data only}
    1. Terry PE, Fowles JB, Harvey L. Employee engagement factors that affect enrollment compared with retention in two coaching programs‐‐The ACTIVATE study. Population Health Management 2010;13(3):115‐22. - PubMed
Ullén 2002 {published data only}
    1. Ullén H, Höijer Y, Ainetdin T, Tillgren P. Focusing management in implementing a smoking ban in a university hospital in Sweden. European Journal of Cancer Prevention 2002;11(2):165‐70. - PubMed
Waage 1997 {published data only}
    1. Waage HP, Vatten LJ, Opedal E, Hilt B. Smoking intervention in subjects at risk of asbestos‐related lung cancer. American Journal of Industrial Medicine 1997;31(6):705‐12. - PubMed
Wakefield 1996 {published data only}
    1. Wakefield M, Roberts L, Owen N. Trends in prevalence and acceptance of workplace smoking bans among indoor workers in South Australia. Tobacco Control 1996;5(3):205‐8. - PMC - PubMed
Whitney 1994 {published data only}
    1. Whitney E, Harris N. A progress report on an ongoing smoking cessation initiative as part of a major wellness program. Health Values 1994;18(1):84‐90.
Wilbur 1986 {published data only}
    1. Wilbur CS, Hartwell TD, Piserchia PV. The Johnson & Johnson LIVE FOR LIFE program: Its organization and evaluation plan. In: Cataldo MF, Coates TJ editor(s). Health and Industry. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1986:338‐50.
Willemsen 1995 {published data only}
    1. Willemsen MC, Vries H. Evaluation of a smoking cessation intervention for Dutch employees consisting of self help methods and a group programme. Tobacco Control 1995;4(4):351‐4.
Willemsen 1999 {published data only}
    1. Willemsen MC, Vries H, Oldenburg B, Breukelen G. Impact of a comprehensive worksite smoking cessation programme on employees who do not take part in cessation activities. Psychology and Health 1999;14(5):887‐95.
Woodruff 1993 {published data only}
    1. Woodruff TJ, Rosbrook B, Pierce J, Glantz SA. Lower levels of cigarette consumption found in smoke‐free workplaces in California. Archives of Internal Medicine 1993;153(12):1485‐93. - PubMed

References to studies awaiting assessment

Gao 2010 {published data only}
    1. Gao J, Zheng P, Gao J, Fu H. Application of theory organizational change for smoking cessation in workplace. We Sheng Yan Jiu (Journal of Hygiene) 2010;39(6):705‐8. - PubMed

References to ongoing studies

NCT01124110 2012 {published data only}
    1. Duffy SA, Ronis DL, Richardson C, Waltje AH, Ewing LA, Noonan D, et al. Protocol of a randomized controlled trial of the Tobacco Tactics website for operating engineers. BMC Public Health 2012; Vol. 12:335. - PMC - PubMed
    1. NCT01124110. Tobacco Tactics website for operating engineers (BCBSM‐OE). clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT01124110 (accessed 12 November 2013).
NTR8148 2012 {published data only}
    1. Laan EK, Kraaijenhagen RA, Peek N, Busschers WB, Deutekom M, Bossuyt P, et al. Effectiveness of a web‐based health risk assessment with individually‐tailored feedback on lifestyle behaviour: study protocol. BMC Public Health 2012;12:200. [NTR8148] - PMC - PubMed
    1. NTR8148. Web‐based health risk assessment. Dutch trial register NTR8148 (accessed 12 November 2013).
Simpson 2000 {published data only}
    1. Dobbins TA, Simpson JM, Oldenburg B. Who comes to a workplace health risk assessment?. International Journal of Behavioural Medicine 1998;5:323‐34. - PubMed
    1. Harris D, Vita P, Oldenburg B, Owen N. Socio‐behavioural and environmental approaches to worksite health promotion: the intervention of the Australian National Workplace Health Project. Health Promotion Journal of Australia 1999;9:49‐54.
    1. Oldenburg B, Sallis JF, Harris D, Owen N. Checklist of Health promotion Environments at Worksites (CHEW): development and measurement characteristics. American Journal of Health Promotion 2002;16(5):288‐99. - PubMed
    1. Simpson JM, Oldenburg B, Owen N, Harris D, Dobbins T, Salmon A, et al. The Australian National Workplace Health Project: Design and baseline findings. Preventive Medicine 2000;31(3):249‐60. - PubMed

Additional references

Bland 1997
    1. Bland JM, Kerry SM. Statistics notes: Trials randomised in clusters. BMJ 1997;315(7108):600. - PMC - PubMed
Cahill 2011
    1. Cahill K, Perera R. Competitions and incentives for smoking cessation. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2011, Issue 4. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD004307.pub4] - DOI - PubMed
Callinan 2010
    1. Callinan JE, Clarke A, Doherty K, Kelleher C. Legislative smoking bans for reducing secondhand smoke exposure, smoking prevalence and tobacco consumption. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2010, Issue 4. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD005992.pub2] - DOI - PubMed
Cochrane Handbook
    1. Higgins JPT, Green S (editors). Cochrane Handbook of Systematic Reviews of Interventions Version 5.1.0 (updated March 2011). The Cochrane Collaboration, 2011. Available from cochrane‐handbook.org.
DeNaves‐Walt 2008
    1. DeNaves‐Walt C, Proctor BD, Smith JC. Income, Poverty and Health Insurance Coverage in the United States 2007. www.census.gov/prod/2007pubs/p60‐233.pdf (accessed 18 November 2013).
Gruman 1993
    1. Gruman J, Lynn W. Worksite and community intervention for tobacco control. In: Orleans CT, Slade J editor(s). Nicotine Addiction: Principles and Management. New York: Oxford University Press, 1993:396‐411.
Lancaster 2005a
    1. Lancaster T, Stead LF. Individual behavioural counselling for smoking cessation. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2005, Issue 2. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD001292.pub2] - DOI - PubMed
Lancaster 2005b
    1. Lancaster T, Stead LF. Self‐help interventions for smoking cessation. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2005, Issue 3. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD001118.pub2] - DOI - PubMed
Martinson 1999
    1. Martinson BC, Murray DM, Jeffery RW, Hennrikus DJ. Intraclass correlation for measures from a worksite health promotion study: estimates, correlates, and applications. American Journal of Health Promotion 1999;13(6):347‐57. - PubMed
NICE 2006
    1. York Health Economics Consortium. A rapid review of the cost‐effectiveness of workplace policies for smoking cessation in England. www.nice.nhs.uk/nicemedia/pdf/SmokingCessationEconomicsNon‐NHSFullReview... (accessed May 22nd 2008) 2006.
NICE 2007
    1. National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence. Workplace health promotion: how to help employees to stop smoking. www.nice.org.uk/nicemedia/pdf/PHI005guidance.pdf (accessed 23rd May 2008) 2007.
Stead 2005
    1. Stead LF, Lancaster T. Group behaviour therapy programmes for smoking cessation. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2005, Issue 2. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD001007.pub2] - DOI - PubMed
Stead 2012
    1. Stead LF, Perera R, Bullen, C Mant D, Hartmann‐Boyce J, Cahill K, et al. Nicotine replacement therapy for smoking cessation. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2012, Issue 11. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD000146.pub4] - DOI - PubMed

References to other published versions of this review

Cahill 2008b
    1. Cahill K, Moher M, Lancaster T. Workplace interventions for smoking cessation. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2008, Issue 4. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD003440.pub3] - DOI - PubMed
Moher 2003
    1. Moher M, Hey K, Lancaster T. Workplace interventions for smoking cessation. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2003, Issue 2. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD003440] - DOI - PubMed
Moher 2005
    1. Moher M, Hey K, Lancaster T. Workplace interventions for smoking cessation. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2005, Issue 2. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD003440.pub2] - DOI - PubMed

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