Respiratory electron transfer pathways in plant mitochondria

Abstract

The respiratory electron transport chain (ETC) couples electron transfer from organic substrates onto molecular oxygen with proton translocation across the inner mitochondrial membrane. The resulting proton gradient is used by the ATP synthase complex for ATP formation. In plants, the ETC is especially intricate. Besides the "classical" oxidoreductase complexes (complex I-IV) and the mobile electron transporters cytochrome c and ubiquinone, it comprises numerous "alternative oxidoreductases." Furthermore, several dehydrogenases localized in the mitochondrial matrix and the mitochondrial intermembrane space directly or indirectly provide electrons for the ETC. Entry of electrons into the system occurs via numerous pathways which are dynamically regulated in response to the metabolic state of a plant cell as well as environmental factors. This mini review aims to summarize recent findings on respiratory electron transfer pathways in plants and on the involved components and supramolecular assemblies.

Keywords: alternative oxidase; dehydrogenase; electron transport chain; plant mitochondria; respiratory supercomplex.

Figure 1

Mitochondrial dehydrogenases and the respiratory chain. Within the mitochondrial matrix (M) numerous dehydrogenases generate NADH by oxidizing various carbon compounds. NADH subsequently is re-oxidized at the inner mitochondrial membrane (IM) by the respiratory electron transfer chain (ETC). The electrons of NADH can enter the ETC through complex I or at the ubiquinone level via alternative NAD(P)H-dehydrogenases. Besides, some dehydrogenases of the mitochondrial matrix transfer electrons to ubiquinone via the ETF/ETFQOR system. Proline dehydrogenase possibly directly transfers electrons onto ubiquinone. In the intermembrane space (IMS), electrons from NAD(P)H generated in the cytoplasm can be inserted into the ETC via alternative NAD(P)H dehydrogenases. Furthermore, some dehydrogenases of the IMS can directly transfer electrons onto ubiquinone or cytochrome c. Color code—dark blue, protein complexes of the ETC; blue, AOX; purple, ETF/ETFQQ system; light green, alternative NAD(P)H dehydrogenases of the ETC; green, dehydrogenases; red, ubiquinone and cytochrome c; yellow, NADH produced by dehydrogenases of the mitochondrial matrix/NADH re-oxidized by complex I or internal alternative NADH dehydrogenases; dark gray, ATP synthase complex; light green background, NADH producing dehydrogenases of the mitochondrial matrix. Abbreviations—alphabetically ordered. I, complex I; II, complex II; III, complex III; IV, complex IV; V, complex V; α-KGDH, α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase; AOX, alternative oxidase; BCKDH, branched-chain α-ketoacid dehydrogenase complex; c, cytochrome c; D-2HGDH, D-2-hydroxyglutarate dehydrogenase; DHODH, dihydroorotate dehydrogenase; DLDH, D-lactate dehydrogenase; ETF, electron transfer flavoprotein; ETFQOR, electron transfer flavoprotein ubiquinone oxidoreductase; FDH, formate dehydrogenase; GDC, glycine dehydrogenase; GDH, glutamate dehydrogenase; GLDH, L-galactono-1,4-lactone dehydrogenase; G3-PDH, glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase; HDH, histidinol dehydrogenase; IDH, isocitrate dehydrogenase; IVDH, isovaleryl-coenzyme A dehydrogenase; MDH, malate dehydrogenase; ME, malic enzyme; MMSDH, methylmalonate-semialdehyde dehydrogenase; NDA1/2, NDB2/3/4, alternative NADH dehydrogenase; NDC1, NDB1, alternative NADPH dehydrogenase; P5CDH, pyrroline-5-carboxylate dehydrogenase; PDH, pyruvate dehydrogenase; ProDH, proline dehydrogenase; SPDH, saccharopine dehydrogenase; SSADH, succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase; UQ, ubiquinone. For further information of the enzymes see Table 1.

Figure 2

Electron entry pathways into the mitochondrial electron transport chain in plants. Electrons enter the respiratory chain via four different pathways. (1) The Matrix-NAD(P)H pathway. Various dehydrogenases oxidize carbon compounds in the mitochondrial matrix. Electrons are transferred in the form of NADH to the ETC. NADH is re-oxidized by complex I or the internal alternative NAD(P)H dehydrogenases. (2) The Matrix-FADH₂ pathway. FAD-containing enzymes oxidize carbon compounds in the mitochondrial matrix and directly (ProDH?) or indirectly (via the ETF/ETFQQ system) transfer electrons to the ubiquinone pool. (3) The IMS-NAD(P)H pathway. Cytoplasmically formed NAD(P)H is re-oxidized via external alternative dehydrogenases. (4) The IMS-FADH₂ pathway. FAD/FMN-containing enzymes oxidize carbon compounds in the mitochondrial intermembrane space. Electrons are transferred either to the ubiquinone or the cytochrome c. M, matrix; IM, inner membrane; IMS, intermembrane space. Abbreviations—alphabetically ordered. I, complex I; II, complex II; III, complex III; IV, complex IV; α-KGDH, α-ketoglutarte dehydrogenase; AOX, alternative oxidase; BCKDH, branched-chain α-ketoacid dehydrogenase complex; Cytc, cytochrome c; D-2HGDH, D-2-hydroxyglutarate dehydrogenase; DHODH, dihydroorotate dehydrogenase; DLDH, D-lactate dehydrogenase; ETF, electron transfer flavoprotein; ETFQOR, electron transfer flavoprotein ubiquinone oxidoreductase; FDH, formate dehydrogenase; GDC, glycine dehydrogenase; GDH, glutamate dehydrogenase; GLDH, L-galactono-1,4-lactone dehydrogenase; G3-PDH, glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase; HDH, histidinol dehydrogenase; IDH, isocitrate dehydrogenase; IVDH, isovaleryl-coenzyme A dehydrogenase; MDH, malate dehydrogenase; ME, malic enzyme; MMSDH, methylmalonate-semialdehyde dehydrogenase; P5CDH, pyrroline-5-carboxylate dehydrogenase; PDH, pyruvate dehydrogenase; ProDH, proline dehydrogenase; SPDH, saccharopine dehydrogenase; SSADH, succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase; UQH₂, ubiquinol.

Figure 3

The dehydrogenase subproteome of plant mitochondria. Mitochondrial proteins from Arabidopsis thaliana were separated by 2D Blue native/SDS PAGE and displayed via GelMap (https://gelmap.de/231#). Protein separation under native condition was from left to right, protein separation in the presence of SDS from top to bottom. Molecular masses of standard proteins are given to the left/above the 2D gel. All proteins annotated as “dehydrogenase” are indicated by white arrows. Exception: The subunits of complex I (NADH dehydrogenase) and complex II (succinate dehydrogenase) are not indicated on the figure.