Behavioral and physiologic indicators of pain in nonverbal patients with a traumatic brain injury: an integrative review

Abstract

The use of behavioral and physiologic indicators is recommended for pain assessment in nonverbal patients. Traumatic brain injuries (TBI) can lead to neurologic changes and affect the way patients respond to pain. As such, commonly used indicators of pain may not apply to TBI patients. This study aimed to review the literature about behavioral/physiologic indicators of pain in nonverbal TBI patients. An integrative review method was used. Medline (from 1948 to June 2011), Cinahl, and Cochrane databases were searched using any combination of the terms brain injury, behavioral indicators, behavioral scale, physiologic indicators, pain, pain assessment, and pain measurement. All articles reporting expert opinion or original data about the validity of behavioral and/or physiologic indicators of pain in TBI patients were considered. For each article included, the quality of findings/clinical recommendations was graded independently by two raters using SORT taxonomy. Eight papers were reviewed. Overall, TBI patients seemed to present a wider range of behavioral reactions to pain than other adult populations. In addition to the commonly observed grimace, agitation, and increased muscle tension, 14%-72% of TBI patients showed raising eyebrows, opening eyes, weeping eyes, and absence of muscle tension when exposed to pain. Those atypical reactions appeared to be present only in the acute phase of TBIs recovery. Similarly to other populations, vital signs were identified as potential indicators of pain in TBI patients. Further research studying TBI patients and considering changes in level of consciousness, location/severity of brain injury, and administration of analgesic/sedative is needed. Until then, nurses should follow the current clinical recommendations.