Skip to main page content
U.S. flag

An official website of the United States government

Dot gov

The .gov means it’s official.
Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

Https

The site is secure.
The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

Access keys NCBI Homepage MyNCBI Homepage Main Content Main Navigation
Meta-Analysis
. 2014 Jun 17;2014(6):CD004381.
doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD004381.pub3.

Music therapy for people with autism spectrum disorder

Monika Geretsegger  1 , Cochavit Elefant, Karin A Mössler, Christian Gold
Affiliations
Meta-Analysis

Music therapy for people with autism spectrum disorder

Monika Geretsegger et al. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. .

Update in

  • Music therapy for autistic people.
    Geretsegger M, Fusar-Poli L, Elefant C, Mössler KA, Vitale G, Gold C. Geretsegger M, et al. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2022 May 9;5(5):CD004381. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD004381.pub4. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2022. PMID: 35532041 Free PMC article.

Abstract

Background: The central impairments of people with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) affect social interaction and communication. Music therapy uses musical experiences and the relationships that develop through them to enable communication and expression, thus attempting to address some of the core problems of people with ASD. The present version of this review on music therapy for ASD is an update of the original Cochrane review published in 2006.

Objectives: To assess the effects of music therapy for individuals with ASD.

Search methods: We searched the following databases in July 2013: CENTRAL, Ovid MEDLINE, EMBASE, LILACS, PsycINFO, CINAHL, ERIC, ASSIA, Sociological Abstracts, and Dissertation Abstracts International. We also checked the reference lists of relevant studies and contacted investigators in person.

Selection criteria: All randomised controlled trials (RCTs) or controlled clinical trials comparing music therapy or music therapy added to standard care to 'placebo' therapy, no treatment, or standard care for individuals with ASD were considered for inclusion.

Data collection and analysis: Two authors independently selected studies, assessed risk of bias, and extracted data from all included studies. We calculated the pooled standardised mean difference (SMD) and corresponding 95% confidence interval (CI) for continuous outcomes to allow the combination data from different scales and to facilitate the interpretation of effect sizes. Heterogeneity was assessed using the I² statistic. In cases of statistical heterogeneity within outcome subgroups, we examined clients' age, intensity of therapy (number and frequency of therapy sessions), and treatment approach as possible sources of heterogeneity.

Main results: We included 10 studies (165 participants) that examined the short- and medium-term effect of music therapy interventions (one week to seven months) for children with ASD. Music was superior to 'placebo' therapy or standard care with respect to the primary outcomes social interaction within the therapy context (SMD 1.06, 95% CI 0.02 to 2.10, 1 RCT, n = 10); generalised social interaction outside of the therapy context (SMD 0.71, 95% CI 0.18 to 1.25, 3 RCTs, n = 57, moderate quality evidence), non-verbal communicative skills within the therapy context (SMD 0.57, 95% CI 0.29 to 0.85, 3 RCTs, n = 30), verbal communicative skills (SMD 0.33, 95% CI 0.16 to 0.49, 6 RCTs, n = 139), initiating behaviour (SMD 0.73, 95% CI 0.36 to 1.11, 3 RCTs, n = 22, moderate quality evidence), and social-emotional reciprocity (SMD 2.28, 95% CI 0.73 to 3.83, 1 RCT, n = 10, low quality evidence). There was no statistically significant difference in non-verbal communicative skills outside of the therapy context (SMD 0.48, 95% CI -0.02 to 0.98, 3 RCTs, n = 57, low quality evidence). Music therapy was also superior to 'placebo' therapy or standard care in secondary outcome areas, including social adaptation (SMD 0.41, 95% CI 0.21 to 0.60, 4 RCTs, n = 26), joy (SMD 0.96, 95% CI 0.04 to 1.88, 1 RCT, n = 10), and quality of parent-child relationships (SMD 0.82, 95% CI 0.13 to 1.52, 2 RCTs, n = 33, moderate quality evidence). None of the included studies reported any adverse effects. The small sample sizes of the studies limit the methodological strength of these findings.

Authors' conclusions: The findings of this updated review provide evidence that music therapy may help children with ASD to improve their skills in primary outcome areas that constitute the core of the condition including social interaction, verbal communication, initiating behaviour, and social-emotional reciprocity. Music therapy may also help to enhance non-verbal communication skills within the therapy context. Furthermore, in secondary outcome areas, music therapy may contribute to increasing social adaptation skills in children with ASD and to promoting the quality of parent-child relationships. In contrast to the studies included in an earlier version of this review published in 2006, the new studies included in this update enhanced the applicability of findings to clinical practice. More research using larger samples and generalised outcome measures is needed to corroborate these findings and to examine whether the effects of music therapy are enduring. When applying the results of this review to practice, it is important to note that the application of music therapy requires specialised academic and clinical training.

PubMed Disclaimer

Conflict of interest statement

The authors of this review are clinically trained music therapists.

Christian Gold is an Associate Editor of the Cochrane Developmental, Psychosocial and Learning Problems Group, and has been involved in publications from two studies included in this review (Kim 2008;Thompson 2012a), none of which supported or influenced his work on this review.

Christian Gold and Karin Mössler's institute (GAMUT) received a grant to support the preparation of this manuscript from The Research Council of Norway (grant no. 213844, The Clinical Research and The mental Health Programmes). Support for the manuscript was also received through Monika Geretsegger's PhD Mobility Fellowship, which was funded by a grant from the Danish Council for Independent Research/Humanities (FKK) to Aalborg University.

Cochavit Elefant ‐ none known.

Figures

1
1
Study flow diagram.
2
2
Risk of bias graph: review authors' judgements about each risk of bias item presented as percentages across all included studies.
3
3
Risk of bias summary: review authors' judgements about each risk of bias item for each included study.
4
4
Forest plot of comparison: 1 Music therapy vs. 'placebo' therapy or standard care, outcome: 1.2 Communicative skills: non‐verbal.
1.1
1.1. Analysis
Comparison 1 Music therapy vs. 'placebo' therapy or standard care, Outcome 1 Social interaction.
1.2
1.2. Analysis
Comparison 1 Music therapy vs. 'placebo' therapy or standard care, Outcome 2 Communicative skills: non‐verbal.
1.3
1.3. Analysis
Comparison 1 Music therapy vs. 'placebo' therapy or standard care, Outcome 3 Communicative skills: verbal.
1.4
1.4. Analysis
Comparison 1 Music therapy vs. 'placebo' therapy or standard care, Outcome 4 Initiating behaviour.
1.5
1.5. Analysis
Comparison 1 Music therapy vs. 'placebo' therapy or standard care, Outcome 5 Social‐emotional reciprocity.
1.6
1.6. Analysis
Comparison 1 Music therapy vs. 'placebo' therapy or standard care, Outcome 6 Social adaptation.
1.7
1.7. Analysis
Comparison 1 Music therapy vs. 'placebo' therapy or standard care, Outcome 7 Joy.
1.8
1.8. Analysis
Comparison 1 Music therapy vs. 'placebo' therapy or standard care, Outcome 8 Quality of parent‐child relationship.
See this image and copyright information in PMC

Update of

References

References to studies included in this review

Arezina 2011 {published and unpublished data}
    1. Arezina CH. The Effect of Interactive Music Therapy on Joint Attention Skills in Preschool Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder [Master's thesis]. Lawrence, KS: University of Kansas, 2011.
Brownell 2002 {published data only}
    1. Brownell MD. Musically adapted social stories to modify behaviors in students with autism: four case studies. Journal of Music Therapy 2002;39(2):117‐44. [PUBMED: 12213082] - PubMed
Buday 1995 {published data only}
    1. Buday EM. The effects of signed and spoken words taught with music on sign and speech imitation by children with autism. Journal of Music Therapy 1995;32(3):189‐202. [DOI: 10.1093/jmt/32.3.189] - DOI
Farmer 2003 {published data only}
    1. Farmer KJ. The Effect of Music vs. Nonmusic Paired with Gestures on Spontaneous Verbal and Nonverbal Communication Skills of Children with Autism Ages 1‐5 [Master's thesis]. Tallahassee, FL: Florida State University, 2003.
Gattino 2011 {published data only}
    1. Gattino GS, Riesgo RDS, Longo D, Leite JCL, Faccini LS. Effects of relational music therapy on communication of children with autism: a randomized controlled study. Nordic Journal of Music Therapy 2011;20(2):142‐54. [DOI: 10.1080/08098131.2011.566933] - DOI
Kim 2008 {published data only}
    1. Kim J. The Effects of Improvisational Music Therapy on Joint Attention Behaviours in Children with Autistic Spectrum Disorder [PhD thesis]. Aalborg, Denmark: Aalborg University, 2006.
    1. Kim J, Wigram T, Gold C. Emotional, motivational and interpersonal responsiveness of children with autism in improvisational music therapy. Autism 2009;13(4):389‐409. - PubMed
    1. Kim J, Wigram T, Gold C. The effects of improvisational music therapy on joint attention behaviors in autistic children: a randomized controlled study. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 2008;38(9):1758‐66. - PubMed
Lim 2010 {published data only}
    1. Lim HA. The Effect of "Developmental Speech‐Language Training through Music" on Speech Production in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders [PhD thesis]. Coral Gables, FL: University of Miami, 2007. - PubMed
    1. Lim HA. Effect of "developmental speech and language training through music" on speech production in children with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Music Therapy 2010; Vol. 47, issue 1:2‐26. - PubMed
Lim 2011 {published data only}
    1. Lim HA, Draper E. The effects of music therapy incorporated with applied behavior analysis verbal behavior approach for children with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Music Therapy 2011;48(4):532‐50. - PubMed
Thomas 2003 {unpublished data only}
    1. Thomas A, Hunter B. The effect of music therapy on communication skills of children ages 2‐3 with autism: a pilot study. Proceedings of the American Music Therapy Association Conference; Minneapolis (MN). 2003.
Thompson 2012a {published data only}
    1. Thompson G. Making a Connection: Randomised Controlled Trial of Family Centred Music Therapy for Young Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder [PhD thesis]. Melbourne, Australia: The University of Melbourne, 2012.

References to studies excluded from this review

Applebaum 1979 {published data only}
    1. Applebaum E, Egel AL, Koegel RL, Imhoff B. Measuring musical abilities of autistic children. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 1979;9(3):279‐85. [PUBMED: 489514] - PubMed
Bettison 1996 {published data only}
    1. Bettison S. The long‐term effects of auditory training on children with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 1996;26(3):361‐74. [PUBMED: 8792266] - PubMed
Blackstock 1978 {published data only}
    1. Blackstock EG. Cerebral asymmetry and the development of early infantile autism. Journal of Autism and Childhood Schizophrenia 1978;8(3):339‐53. [PUBMED: 690068] - PubMed
Bonnel 2003 {published data only}
    1. Bonnel A, Mottron L, Peretz I, Trudel M, Gallun E, Bonnel AM. Enhanced pitch sensitivity in individuals with autism: a signal detection analysis. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 2003;15(2):226‐35. [PUBMED: 12676060] - PubMed
Boso 2007 {published data only}
    1. Boso M, Emanuele E, Minazzi V, Abbamonte M, Politi P. Effect of long‐term interactive music therapy on behavior profile and musical skills in young adults with severe autism. Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine 2007;13(2):709–12. [DOI: 10.1089/acm.2006.6334] - DOI - PubMed
Brown 1994 {published data only}
    1. Brown SMK. Autism and music therapy ‐ is change possible, and why music?. Journal of British Music Therapy 1994;8(1):15‐25.
Brown 2003 {published data only}
    1. Brown WA, Cammuso K, Sachs H, Winklosky B, Mullane J, Bernier R, et al. Autism‐related language, personality, and cognition in people with absolute pitch: results of a preliminary study. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 2003;33(2):163‐7. [PUBMED: 12757355] - PubMed
Bruscia 1982 {published data only}
    1. Bruscia KE. Music in the assessment and treatment of echolalia. Music Therapy 1982;2(1):25‐41.
Carroll 1983 {published data only}
    1. Carroll JG. The Use of Musical Verbal Stimuli in Teaching Low‐Functioning Autistic Children [PhD thesis]. Oxford, MS: University of Mississippi, 1983.
Chilcote‐Doner 1982 {published data only}
    1. Chilcote‐Doner SE. The Effect of Contingent vs. Non‐Contingent Presentation of Rhythmic Asynchronous Stimulation on the Stereotyped Behavior of Children with Autism [PhD thesis]. Nashville, TN: Vanderbilt University, 1982.
Clauss 1994 {published data only}
    1. Clauss EL. Effects of Music on Attention and Self‐Stimulatory Behaviors in Autistic People [PhD thesis]. New York: Hofstra University, 1994.
Cooley 2012 {published data only}
    1. Cooley J. The Use of Developmental Speech and Language Training through Music to Enhance Quick Incidental Learning in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders [Master's thesis]. Fort Collins, CO: Colorado State University, 2012.
Dawson 1998 {published data only}
    1. Dawson G, Meltzoff AN, Osterling J, Rinaldi J, Brown E. Children with autism fail to orient to naturally occurring social stimuli. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 1998;28(6):479‐85. [PUBMED: 9932234] - PubMed
Diez Cuervo 1989 {published data only}
    1. Diez Cuervo A, Garcia de Leon M, Gonzalez Sanz L. Brain mapping study of cognitive functions in autistic children [Estudio de funciones cognitivas en ninos autistas mediante cartografia electrica cerebral (mapping)]. Archivos de Neurobiologia 1989;52(1):9‐16. [PUBMED: 2719530] - PubMed
Edelson 1999 {published data only}
    1. Edelson SM, Arin D, Bauman M, Lukas SE, Rudy JH, Sholar M, et al. Auditory integration training: a double‐blind study of behavioral and electrophysiological effects in people with autism. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities 1999;14(2):73‐81.
Edgerton 1994 {published data only}
    1. Edgerton CL. The effect of improvisational music therapy on the communicative behaviors of autistic children. Journal of Music Therapy 1994;31(1):31‐62.
Finnigan 2010 {published data only}
    1. Finnigan D, Starr E. Increasing social responsiveness in a child with autism: a comparison of music and non‐music interventions. Autism 2010;14(4):321‐48. - PubMed
Frissell 2001 {published data only}
    1. Frissell JK. Musical preferences and reproduction abilities in children with autism. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering 2001;62(3B):1574.
Goldstein 1964 {published data only}
    1. Goldstein C. Music and creative arts therapy for an autistic child. Journal of Music Therapy 1964;1(4):135‐8.
Gore 2002 {published data only}
    1. Gore AK. The Effect of Music versus Emphasised Speech on Echolalic Autistic Children [Master's thesis]. Tallahassee, FL: Florida State University, 2002.
    1. Gore AK. The effect of music versus emphasised speech on echolalic autistic children. Proceedings of the Annual Conference of the American Music Therapy Association. Atlanta, GA, 2002.
Griggs 1997 {published data only}
    1. Griggs Drane ER, Wheeler JJ. The use of functional assessment procedures and individualized schedules in the treatment of autism: recommendations for music therapists. Music Therapy Perspectives 1997;15(2):87‐93. [DOI: 10.1093/mtp/15.2.87] - DOI
Hadsell 1988 {published data only}
    1. Hadsell NA, Coleman KA. Rett syndrome: a challenge for music therapists. Music Therapy Perspectives 1988;5(2):52‐6.
Hairston 1990 {published data only}
    1. Hairston MP. Analyses of responses of mentally retarded autistic and mentally retarded nonautistic children to art therapy and music therapy. Journal of Music Therapy 1990;27(3):137‐50. [DOI: 10.1093/jmt/27.3.137] - DOI
Heaton 1999 {published data only}
    1. Heaton P, Hermelin B, Pring L. Can children with autistic spectrum disorders perceive affect in music? An experimental investigation. Psychological Medicine 1999;29(6):1405‐10. [PUBMED: 10616946] - PubMed
Heaton 2003 {published data only}
    1. Heaton P. Pitch memory, labelling and disembedding in autism. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines 2003;44(4):543‐51. [PUBMED: 12751846] - PubMed
Hillier 2012 {published data only}
    1. Hillier A, Greher G, Poto N, Dougherty M. Positive outcomes following participation in a music intervention for adolescents and young adults on the autism spectrum. Psychology of Music 2012;40(2):201‐15. [DOI: 10.1177/0305735610386837] - DOI
Kern 2006 {published data only}
    1. Kern P, Aldridge D. Using embedded music therapy interventions to support outdoor play of young children with autism in an inclusive community‐based child care program. Journal of Music Therapy 2006;43(4):270‐94. - PubMed
Kern 2007 {published data only}
    1. Kern P, Wolery M, Aldridge, D. Use of songs to promote independence in morning greeting routines for young children with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 2007;37(7):1264‐71. - PubMed
Kolko 1980 {published data only}
    1. Kolko DJ, Anderson L, Campbell M. Sensory preference and overselective responding in autistic children. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 1980;10(3):259‐71. [PUBMED: 6927653] - PubMed
Krauss 1982 {published data only}
    1. Krauss T, Galloway H. Melodic intonation therapy with language delayed apraxic children. Journal of Music Therapy 1982;19(2):102‐13. [PUBMED: 10.1093/jmt/19.2.102]
Laird 1997 {published data only}
    1. Laird PD. The Effect of Music on Cognitive/Communicative Skills with Students Diagnosed with Autism, Autistic Like Characteristics and Other Related Pervasive Developmental Disorders [Master's thesis]. Tallahassee, FL: Florida State University, 1997.
Lee 2004 {published data only}
    1. Lee LYL. Using musical improvisation to effect linguistic and behavioral changes in a cohort of Taiwanese autistic children. Proceedings of the 6th Annual Conference of the American Music Therapy Association. Austin, TX, 2004.
Li 2011 {published data only}
    1. Li N, Jin BX, Li JL, Liu ZH. Treatment of autism with scalp acupuncture. Chinese Acupuncture and Moxibustion 2011;31(8):692‐6. - PubMed
Lim 2007 {published data only}
    1. Lim HA. The Effect of "Developmental Speech‐Language Training Through Music" on Speech Production in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders [PhD thesis]. Coral Gables, FL: University of Miami, 2007. - PubMed
Litchman 1976 {published data only}
    1. Litchman MD. The Use of Music in Establishing a Learning Environment for Language Instruction with Autistic Children [PhD thesis]. Buffalo, NY: State University of New York, 1976.
Lundqvist 2009 {published data only}
    1. Lundqvist LO, Andersson G, Viding J. Effects of vibroacoustic music on challenging behaviors in individuals with autism and developmental disabilities. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders 2009;3(2):390‐400. [DOI: 10.1016/j.rasd.2008.08.005] - DOI
Ma 2001 {published data only}
    1. Ma YC, Nagler J, Lee MHM, Cabrera IN. Impact of music therapy on the communication skills of toddlers with pervasive developmental disorder. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 2001;930:445‐7. - PubMed
Mahlberg 1973 {published data only}
    1. Mahlberg M. Music therapy in the treatment of an autistic child. Journal of Music Therapy 1973;10(4):189‐93. [DOI: 10.1093/jmt/10.4.189] - DOI
Miller 1979 {published data only}
    1. Miller SB, Toca JM. Adapted melodic intonation therapy: a case study of an experimental language program for an autistic child. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 1979;40(4):201‐3. - PubMed
Mottron 2000 {published data only}
    1. Mottron L, Peretz I, Menard E. Local and global processing of music in high‐functioning persons with autism: beyond central coherence?. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines 2000;41(8):1057‐65. [PUBMED: 11099122] - PubMed
Mudford 2000 {published data only}
    1. Mudford OC, Cross BA, Breen S, Cullen C, Reeves D, Gould J, et al. Auditory integration training for children with autism: no behavioral benefits detected. American Journal of Mental Retardation 2000;105(2):118‐29. [PUBMED: 10755175] - PubMed
O'Connell 1974 {published data only}
    1. O'Connell TS. The musical life of an autistic boy. Journal of Autism and Childhood Schizophrenia 1974;4(3):223‐9. [DOI: 10.1007/BF02115228] - DOI - PubMed
O'Dell 1998 {published data only}
    1. O'Dell AW. Effects of Paired Auditory and Deep Pressure Stimulation on the Stereotypical Behaviors of Children with Autism [Master's thesis]. Tallahassee, FL: Florida State University, 1998.
O'Loughlin 2000 {published data only}
    1. O'Loughlin R. Facilitating Prelinguistic Communication Skills of Attention by Integrating a Music Stimulus within Typical Language Intervention with Autistic Children [PhD thesis]. Toledo, OH: University of Toledo, 2000.
Pasiali 2004 {published data only}
    1. Pasiali V. The use of prescriptive songs in a home‐based environment to promote social skills acquisition by children with autism: three case studies. Music Therapy Perspectives 2004;22(1):11‐20.
Rao 2001 {published data only}
    1. Rao PA. Social Interactional Changes in Mothers of Autistic Children Following an Acoustic Intervention [PhD thesis]. College Park, MD: University of Maryland, 2001.
Sandiford 2013 {published data only}
    1. Sandiford GA, Mainess KJ, Daher NS. A pilot study on the efficacy of melodic based communication therapy for eliciting speech in nonverbal children with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 2013;43(6):1298‐307. [DOI: 10.1007/s10803-012-1672-z] - DOI - PubMed
Saperston 1973 {published data only}
    1. Saperston B. The use of music in establishing communication with an autistic mentally retarded child. Journal of Music Therapy 1973;10(4):184‐8.
Schmidt 1976 {published data only}
    1. Schmidt DC, Franklin R, Edwards JS. Reinforcement of autistic children's responses to music. Psychological Reports 1976;39(2):571‐7. [PUBMED: 10596] - PubMed
Starr 1998 {published data only}
    1. Starr E, Zenker K. Understanding autism in the context of music therapy: bridging theory and practice. Canadian Journal of Music Therapy 1998;6(1):1‐19.
Staum 1984 {published data only}
    1. Staum MJ, Flowers PJ. The use of simulated training and music lessons in teaching appropriate shopping skills to an autistic child. Music Therapy Perspectives 1984;1(3):14‐7.
Stephens 2008 {published data only}
    1. Stephens CE. Spontaneous imitation by children with autism during a repetitive musical play routine. Autism 2008;12(6):645‐71. [DOI: 10.1177/1362361308097117] - DOI - PubMed
Stevens 1969 {published data only}
    1. Stevens E, Clark F. Music therapy in the treatment of autistic children. Journal of Music Therapy 1969;6(4):98‐104. [PUBMED: 10.1093/jmt/6.4.98 ]
Thaut 1987 {published data only}
    1. Thaut MH. Visual versus auditory (musical) stimulus preferences in autistic children: a pilot study. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 1987;17(3):425‐32. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Thaut 1988 {published data only}
    1. Thaut MH. Measuring musical responsiveness in autistic children: a comparative analysis of improvised musical tone sequences of autistic, normal, and mentally retarded individuals. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 1988;18(4):561‐71. [PUBMED: 3215882] - PubMed
Toolan 1994 {published data only}
    1. Toolan PG, Coleman SY. Music therapy, a description of process: engagement and avoidance in five people with learning disabilities. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research 1994;38(4):433‐44. [PUBMED: 7949794] - PubMed
Watson 1979 {published data only}
    1. Watson D. Music as reinforcement in increasing spontaneous speech among autistic children. Missouri Journal of Research in Music Education 1979;4(3):8‐20.
Wimpory 1995 {published data only}
    1. Wimpory D, Chadwick P, Nash S. Brief report: musical interaction therapy for children with autism: an evaluative case study with two‐year follow‐up. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 1995;25(5):541‐52. [PUBMED: 8567598] - PubMed
Wood 1991 {published data only}
    1. Wood SR. A Study of the Effects of Music on Attending Behavior of Children with Autistic‐Like Syndrome [Master's thesis]. San José, CA: San José State University, 1991.

References to ongoing studies

ISRCTN78923965 {published and unpublished data}
    1. ISRCTN78923965. Randomised controlled trial of improvisational music therapy's effectiveness for children with autism spectrum disorders (TIME‐A). http://www.controlled‐trials.com/ISRCTN78923965. [DOI: 10.1186/ISRCTN78923965] - DOI - PMC - PubMed

Additional references

Accordino 2007
    1. Accordino R, Comer R, Heller WB. Searching for music's potential: a critical examination of research on music therapy with individuals with autism. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders 2007;1(1):101‐13. [DOI: 10.1016/j.rasd.2006.08.002] - DOI
Aldridge 2002
    1. Aldridge D, Fachner J. Music Therapy World Info‐CD ROM IV. Witten‐Herdecke: University Witten‐Herdecke, 2002.
Alvin 1991
    1. Alvin J, Warwick A. Music Therapy for the Autistic Child. 2nd Edition. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 1991.
AMTA 1999
    1. American Music Therapy Association. Music Therapy Research: Quantitative and Qualitative Foundations CD‐ROM I. 1964‐1998. Silver Spring, MD: American Music Therapy Association, 1999.
APA 2000
    1. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM‐IV‐TR). 4th Edition. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association, 2000.
APA 2013
    1. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM‐5). 5th Edition. Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Publishing, 2013.
Asperger 1979
    1. Asperger H. Problems of infantile autism. Communication 1979;13(3):45‐52.
Baird 2006
    1. Baird G, Simonoff E, Pickles A, Chandler S, Loucas T, Meldrum D, et al. Prevalence of disorders of the autism spectrum in a population cohort of children in South Thames: the Special Needs and Autism Project (SNAP). Lancet 2006;368(9531):210‐5. - PubMed
Ball 2004
    1. Ball CM. Music therapy for children with autistic spectrum disorder. Wessex Institute for Health Research and Development, University of Southampton 2004, issue 11.
Baron‐Cohen 1995
    1. Baron‐Cohen S. Mindblindness: An Essay on Autism and Theory of Mind. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 1995.
Baron‐Cohen 2009
    1. Baron‐Cohen S, Scott FJ, Allison C, Williams J, Bolton P, Matthews FE, et al. Prevalence of autism‐spectrum conditions: UK school‐based population study. British Journal of Psychiatry 2009;194:500‐9. [DOI: 10.1192/bjp.bp.108.059345] - DOI - PubMed
Bruscia 1998
    1. Bruscia KE. Defining Music Therapy. 2nd Edition. Gilsum, NH: Barcelona Publishers, 1998.
Chakrabarti 2001
    1. Chakrabarti S, Fombonne E. Pervasive developmental disorders in preschool children. JAMA 2001;285(24):3093‐9. - PubMed
Cheuk 2011
    1. Cheuk DKL, Wong V, Chen WX. Acupuncture for autism spectrum disorders (ASD). Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2011, Issue 9. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD007849.pub2] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Cohen 1988
    1. Cohen J. Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences. 2nd Edition. Hillsdale, NJ: L. Erlbaum, 1988.
Cohen 1999
    1. Cohen IL, Sudhalter V. Pervasive Developmental Disorder Behavior Inventory (PDDBI‐C). NYS Institute for Basic Research in Developmental Disabilities, 1999.
Constantino 2005
    1. Constantino JH, Gruber CP. Social Responsiveness Scale. Los Angeles, CA: Western Psychological Services, 2005.
Elbourne 2002
    1. Elbourne DR, Altman DA, Higgins JPT, Curtin F, Worthington HV, Vail A. Meta‐analyses involving cross‐over trials: methodological issues. International Journal of Epidemiology 2002;31(1):140‐9. - PubMed
Fenson 2007
    1. Fenson L, Marchman V, Thal D, Dale PS, Reznick JS, Bates E. MacArthur‐Bates Communicative Development Inventories: User's Guide and Technical Manual. 2nd Edition. Baltimore, MD: PH. Brookes, 2007.
Fombonne 1999
    1. Fombonne E. The epidemiology of autism: a review. Psychological Medicine 1999;29(4):769‐86. - PubMed
Fombonne 2009
    1. Fombonne E. Epidemiology of pervasive developmental disorders. Pediatric Research 2009;65(6):591‐8. - PubMed
Fombonne 2010
    1. Fombonne E. Estimated prevalence of autism spectrum conditions in Cambridgeshire is over 1%. Evidence‐Based Mental Health 2010;13(1):32. [DOI: 10.1136/ebmh.13.1.32] - DOI - PubMed
Gerard 2005
    1. Gerard AB. Parent‐Child Relationship Inventory (PCRI) Manual. 4th Edition. Los Angeles, CA: Western Psychological Services, 2005.
Geretsegger 2012
    1. Geretsegger M, Holck U, Gold C. Randomised controlled trial of improvisational music therapy's effectiveness for children with autism spectrum disorders (TIME‐A): study protocol. BMC Pediatrics 2012;12(2):1‐9. [DOI: 10.1186/1471-2431-12-2] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Gold 2004
    1. Gold C. The use of effect sizes in music therapy research. Music Therapy Perspectives 2004;22(2):91‐5.
Gold 2006
    1. Gold C, Wigram T, Elefant C. Music therapy for autistic spectrum disorder. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2006, Issue 2. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD004381.pub2] - DOI - PubMed
Gold 2011a
    1. Gold C. Special section: music therapy for people with autistic spectrum disorder. Nordic Journal of Music Therapy 2011;20(2):105‐7. [DOI: 10.1080/08098131.2011.569164] - DOI
Gold 2011b
    1. Gold C. Goodbye, Tony Wigram (1953‐2011). Nordic Journal of Music Therapy 2011;20(3):205‐7. [DOI: 10.1080/08098131.2011.604527] - DOI
GRADEpro 2008 [Computer program]
    1. Brozek JL, Oxman A, Schünemann HJ. GRADEprofiler. Version 3.6 for Windows. GRADE Working Group, 2008.
Higgins 2002
    1. Higgins JP, Thompson SG. Quantifying heterogeneity in a meta‐analysis. Statistics in Medicine 2002;21(11):1539‐58. - PubMed
Higgins 2011a
    1. Higgins JPT, Altman DG, Sterne JAC (editors). Chapter 8: Assessing risk of bias in included studies. In: Higgins JPT, Green S editor(s). Cochrane Handbook of Systematic Review of Interventions Version 5.1.0 [updated March 2011]. The Cochrane Collaboration, 2011. Available from www.cochrane‐handbook.org.
Higgins 2011b
    1. Higgins JPT, Deeks JJ, Altman DG (editors). Chapter 16: Special topics in statistics. In: Higgins JPT, Green S editor(s). Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions Version 5.1.0 [updated March 2011]. The Cochrane Collaboration, 2011. Available from www.cochrane‐handbook.org.
Holck 2004
    1. Holck U. Interaction themes in music therapy – definition and delimitation. Nordic Journal of Music Therapy 2004;13(1):3‐19. [DOI: 10.1080/08098130409478094] - DOI
Howlin 1998
    1. Howlin P. Children with Autism and Asperger Syndrome: A Guide for Practitioners and Carers. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, 1998.
Kendall 2004
    1. Kendall P, Holmbeck G, Verduin T. Methodology, design, and evaluation in psychotherapy research. In: Lambert MJ editor(s). Bergin and Garfield's Handbook of Psychotherapy and Behavior Change. 5th Edition. New York, NY: Wiley, 2004:16‐43.
Kim 2006
    1. Kim J. The Effects of Improvisational Music Therapy on Joint Attention Behaviours in Children with Autistic Spectrum Disorder [PhD thesis]. Aalborg, Denmark: Aalborg University, 2006.
Lambert 2004
    1. Lambert MJ, Ogles BM. The efficacy and effectiveness of psychotherapy. In: Lambert MJ editor(s). Bergin and Garfield's Handbook of Psychotherapy and Behavior Change. 5th Edition. New York, NY: Wiley, 2004:139‐93.
Lord 2012
    1. Lord C, Jones RM. Annual research review: re‐thinking the classification of autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 2012;53(5):490–509. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-7610.2012.02547.x] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Mundy 2003
    1. Mundy P, Delgado C, Block J, Venezia M, Hogan A, Seibert J. A Manual for the Abridged Early Social Communication Scales (ESCS). Coral Gables, FL: University of Miami, 2003.
Oldfield 2012
    1. Oldfield A, Bell K, Pool J. Three families and three music therapists: reflections on short‐term music therapy in child and family psychiatry. Nordic Journal of Music Therapy 2012;21(3):250‐67. [DOI: 10.1080/08098131.2011.640436] - DOI
Oono 2013
    1. Oono IP, McConachie H, Honey EJ. Parent‐mediated early intervention for young children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD). Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2013, Issue 4. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD009774.pub2] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Ozonoff 2005
    1. Ozonoff S, Goodlin‐Jones BL, Solomon M. Evidence‐based assessment of autism spectrum disorders in children and adolescents. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology 2005;34(3):523‐40. - PubMed
Pasquali 2002
    1. Pasquali L, Wechsler S, Bensusan E. Raven's Colored Progressive Matrices for children: a validation study for Brazil [Matrizes Progressivas do Raven infantil: um estudo de validação para o Brasil]. Avaliação Psicológica 2002;1(2):95‐110.
Pereira 2008
    1. Pereira A, Riesgo RS, Wagner MB. Childhood autism: translation and validation of the childhood autism rating scale for use in Brazil. Jornal de Pediatria (Rio de Janeiro) 2008;84(6):487‐94. - PubMed
Rapin 2008
    1. Rapin I, Goldman S. The Brazilian CARS: a standardized screening tool for autism. Jornal de Pediatria (Rio de Janeiro) 2008;84(6):473‐5. - PubMed
Reschke‐Hernández 2011
    1. Reschke‐Hernández AE. History of music therapy treatment interventions for children with autism. Journal of Music Therapy 2011;48(2):169‐207. - PubMed
Review Manager 2012 [Computer program]
    1. The Nordic Cochrane Centre, The Cochrane Collaboration. Review Manager (RevMan). Version 5.2. Copenhagen: The Nordic Cochrane Centre, The Cochrane Collaboration, 2012.
Rolvsjord 2005
    1. Rolvsjord R, Gold C, Stige B. Research rigour and therapeutic flexibility: rationale for a therapy manual developed for a randomised controlled trial. Nordic Journal of Music Therapy 2005;14(1):15‐32.
Schumacher 1999a
    1. Schumacher K. Musiktherapie und Säuglingsforschung. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, 1999.
Schumacher 1999b
    1. Schumacher K, Calvet‐Kruppa C. The AQR ‐ an analysis system to evaluate the quality of relationship during music therapy. Nordic Journal of Music Therapy 1999;8(2):188‐91.
Schünemann 2011
    1. Schünemann HJ, Oxman AD, Vist GE, Higgins JPT, Deeks JJ, Glasziou P, et al. Chapter 12: Interpreting results and drawing conclusions. In: Higgins JPT, Green S editor(s). Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions Version 5.1.0 [updated March 2011]. The Cochrane Collaboration, 2011. Available from www.cochrane‐handbook.org.
Simpson 2011
    1. Simpson K, Keen D. Music interventions for children with autism: narrative review of the literature. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 2011;41(11):1507‐14. [DOI: 10.1007/s10803-010-1172-y] - DOI - PubMed
Sparrow 1998
    1. Sparrow S, Balla D, Cicchetti D. Vineland Social‐Emotional Early Childhood Scales Manual. Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service, 1998.
Stern 1985
    1. Stern DN. The Interpersonal World of the Infant: A View from Psychoanalysis and Developmental Psychology. New York, NY: Basic Books, 1985.
Stern 1989
    1. Stern DN. The representation of relational patterns: developmental considerations. In: Sameroff AJ, Emde RN editor(s). Relationship Disturbances in Early Childhood. New York, NY: Basic Books, 1989:52‐69.
Stern 2010
    1. Stern DN. Forms of Vitality. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010.
Thompson 2012b
    1. Thompson G. Family‐centered music therapy in the home environment: promoting interpersonal engagement between children with autism spectrum disorder and their parents. Music Therapy Perspectives 2012;30(2):109‐16.
Thorpe 2009
    1. Thorpe KE, Zwarenstein M, Oxman AD, Treweek S, Furberg CD, Altman DG, et al. A pragmatic‐explanatory continuum indicator summary (PRECIS): a tool to help trial designers. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology 2009;62(5):464‐75. - PubMed
Trevarthen 1999
    1. Trevarthen C. How music heals. In: Wigram T, Backer J editor(s). Clinical Applications of Music Therapy in Developmental Disability, Paediatrics and Neurology. London, UK: J. Kingsley, 1999:7‐10.
Trevarthen 2000
    1. Trevarthen C. Musicality and the intrinsic motive pulse: evidence from human psychobiology and infant communication. Musicae Scientiae 2000;3(1 Suppl):155‐215.
Warren 2011
    1. Warren Z, Veenstra‐VanderWeele J, Stone W, Bruzek JL, Nahmias AS, Foss‐Feig JH, et al. Therapies for children with autism spectrum disorders. http://effectivehealthcare.ahrq.gov/ehc/products/106/651/Autism_Disorder... (accessed 18 March 2014). - PubMed
Wheeler 2008
    1. Wheeler D, Williams K, Seida J, Ospina M. The Cochrane Library and autism spectrum disorder: an overview of reviews. Evidence‐Based Child Health 2008;3(1):3‐15. [DOI: 10.1002/ebch.218] - DOI
Whipple 2004
    1. Whipple J. Music in intervention for children and adolescents with autism: a meta‐analysis. Journal of Music Therapy 2004;41(2):90‐106. - PubMed
Whipple 2012
    1. Whipple J. Music therapy as an effective treatment for young children with autism spectrum disorders: a meta‐analysis. In: Kern P, Humpal M editor(s). Early Childhood Music Therapy and Autism Spectrum Disorders: Developing Potential in Young Children and their Families. London, UK: J. Kingsley, 2012:58‐76.
WHO 1992
    1. World Health Organization. International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems. 10th Edition. Geneva: World Health Organization, 1992.
Wigram 2002
    1. Wigram T. Indications in music therapy: evidence from assessment that can identify the expectations of music therapy as a treatment for autistic spectrum disorder (ASD). Meeting the challenge of evidence based practice. British Journal of Music Therapy 2002;16(1):5‐28.
Wigram 2006
    1. Wigram T, Gold C. Music therapy in the assessment and treatment of autistic spectrum disorder: clinical application and research evidence. Child: Care, Health and Development 2006; Vol. 32, issue 5:535‐42. - PubMed
Wigram 2009
    1. Wigram T, Elefant C. Therapeutic dialogues in music: nurturing musicality of communication in children with autistic spectrum disorder and Rett syndrome. In: Malloch S, Trevarthen C editor(s). Communicative Musicality. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2009:423‐45.
Wing 1997
    1. Wing L. Syndromes of autism and atypical development. In: Cohen D, Volkmar F editor(s). Handbook of Autism and Pervasive Developmental Disorders. 2nd Edition. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, 1997:148‐72.
Wing 2002
    1. Wing L, Leekam SR, Libby SJ, Gould J, Larcombe M. The diagnostic interview for social and communication disorders: background, inter‐rater reliability and clinical use. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 2002;43(3):307‐25. - PubMed

References to other published versions of this review

Gold 2006
    1. Gold C, Wigram T, Elefant C. Music therapy for autistic spectrum disorder. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2006, Issue 2. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD004381.pub2] - DOI - PubMed

Publication types

LinkOut - more resources