. 2014 Sep 11;513(7517):195-201.

doi: 10.1038/nature13679.

Gibbon genome and the fast karyotype evolution of small apes

Lucia Carbone¹, R Alan Harris², Sante Gnerre³, Krishna R Veeramah⁴, Belen Lorente-Galdos⁵, John Huddleston⁶, Thomas J Meyer⁷, Javier Herrero⁸, Christian Roos⁹, Bronwen Aken¹⁰, Fabio Anaclerio¹¹, Nicoletta Archidiacono¹¹, Carl Baker¹², Daniel Barrell¹⁰, Mark A Batzer¹³, Kathryn Beal¹⁴, Antoine Blancher¹⁵, Craig L Bohrson¹⁶, Markus Brameier⁹, Michael S Campbell¹⁷, Oronzo Capozzi¹¹, Claudio Casola¹⁸, Giorgia Chiatante¹¹, Andrew Cree¹⁹, Annette Damert²⁰, Pieter J de Jong²¹, Laura Dumas²², Marcos Fernandez-Callejo⁵, Paul Flicek¹⁴, Nina V Fuchs²³, Ivo Gut²⁴, Marta Gut²⁴, Matthew W Hahn²⁵, Jessica Hernandez-Rodriguez⁵, LaDeana W Hillier²⁶, Robert Hubley²⁷, Bianca Ianc²⁰, Zsuzsanna Izsvák²³, Nina G Jablonski²⁸, Laurel M Johnstone²⁹, Anis Karimpour-Fard²², Miriam K Konkel¹³, Dennis Kostka³⁰, Nathan H Lazar³¹, Sandra L Lee¹⁹, Lora R Lewis¹⁹, Yue Liu¹⁹, Devin P Locke³², Swapan Mallick³³, Fernando L Mendez³⁴, Matthieu Muffato¹⁴, Lynne V Nazareth¹⁹, Kimberly A Nevonen³⁵, Majesta O'Bleness²², Cornelia Ochis²⁰, Duncan T Odom³⁶, Katherine S Pollard³⁷, Javier Quilez⁵, David Reich³³, Mariano Rocchi¹¹, Gerald G Schumann³⁸, Stephen Searle³⁹, James M Sikela²², Gabriella Skollar⁴⁰, Arian Smit²⁶, Kemal Sonmez⁴¹, Boudewijn ten Hallers⁴², Elizabeth Terhune³⁵, Gregg W C Thomas²⁵, Brygg Ullmer⁴³, Mario Ventura¹¹, Jerilyn A Walker¹³, Jeffrey D Wall⁴⁴, Lutz Walter⁹, Michelle C Ward⁴⁵, Sarah J Wheelan¹⁶, Christopher W Whelan⁴⁶, Simon White³⁹, Larry J Wilhelm³⁵, August E Woerner²⁹, Mark Yandell¹⁷, Baoli Zhu⁴², Michael F Hammer²⁹, Tomas Marques-Bonet⁴⁷, Evan E Eichler⁶, Lucinda Fulton²⁶, Catrina Fronick²⁶, Donna M Muzny¹⁹, Wesley C Warren²⁶, Kim C Worley¹⁹, Jeffrey Rogers¹⁹, Richard K Wilson²⁶, Richard A Gibbs¹⁹

Affiliations

¹ 1] Oregon Health &Science University, Department of Behavioral Neuroscience, 3181 SW Sam Jackson Park Road Portland, Oregon 97239, USA. [2] Oregon National Primate Research Center, Division of Neuroscience, 505 NW 185th Avenue, Beaverton, Oregon 97006, USA. [3] Oregon Health &Science University, Department of Molecular &Medical Genetics, 3181 SW Sam Jackson Park Road, Portland, Oregon 97239, USA. [4] Oregon Health &Science University, Bioinformatics and Computational Biology Division, Department of Medical Informatics &Clinical Epidemiology, 3181 SW Sam Jackson Park Road, Portland, Oregon 97239, USA.
² Baylor College of Medicine, Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, One Baylor Plaza, Houston, Texas 77030, USA.
³ Nabsys, 60 Clifford Street, Providence, Rhode Island 02903, USA.
⁴ 1] University of Arizona, ARL Division of Biotechnology, Tucson, Arizona 85721, USA. [2] Stony Brook University, Department of Ecology and Evolution, Stony Brook, New York 11790, USA.
⁵ IBE, Institut de Biologia Evolutiva (UPF-CSIC), Universitat Pompeu Fabra, PRBB, Doctor Aiguader, 88, 08003 Barcelona, Spain.
⁶ 1] Department of Genome Sciences, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, Washington 98195, USA. [2] Howard Hughes Medical Institute, 1705 NE Pacific Street, Seattle, Washington 98195, USA.
⁷ Oregon Health &Science University, Department of Behavioral Neuroscience, 3181 SW Sam Jackson Park Road Portland, Oregon 97239, USA.
⁸ 1] European Molecular Biology Laboratory, European Bioinformatics Institute, Wellcome Trust Genome Campus, Hinxton, Cambridge CB10 1SD, UK. [2] The Genome Analysis Centre, Norwich Research Park, Norwich NR4 7UH, UK. [3] Bill Lyons Informatics Center, UCL Cancer Institute, University College London, London WC1E 6DD, UK (J.He); Seven Bridges Genomics, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, USA (D.P.L.); Department of Genetics, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California 94305, USA (F.L.M.); BioNano Genomics, San Diego, California 92121, USA (B.t.H.); University of Chicago, Department of Human Genetics, Chicago, Illinois 60637, USA (M.C.W.); Stanley Center for Psychiatric Research, Broad Institute, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, USA (C.W.W.); The CAS Key Laboratory of Pathogenic Microbiology and Immunology, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China (B.Z.).
⁹ Leibniz Institute for Primate Research, Gene Bank of Primates, German Primate Center, Göttingen 37077, Germany.
¹⁰ 1] European Molecular Biology Laboratory, European Bioinformatics Institute, Wellcome Trust Genome Campus, Hinxton, Cambridge CB10 1SD, UK. [2] European Bioinformatics Institute, Wellcome Trust Genome Campus, Hinxton, Cambridge CB10 1SD, UK.
¹¹ University of Bari, Department of Biology, Via Orabona 4, 70125, Bari, Italy.
¹² Department of Genome Sciences, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, Washington 98195, USA.
¹³ Louisiana State University, Department of Biological Sciences, Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70803, USA.
¹⁴ European Molecular Biology Laboratory, European Bioinformatics Institute, Wellcome Trust Genome Campus, Hinxton, Cambridge CB10 1SD, UK.
¹⁵ University of Paul Sabatier, Toulouse 31062, France.
¹⁶ The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Department of Oncology, Division of Biostatistics and Bioinformatics, Baltimore, Maryland 21205, USA.
¹⁷ University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah 84112, USA.
¹⁸ Texas A&M University, Department of Ecosystem Science and Management, College Station, Texas 77843, USA.
¹⁹ Human Genome Sequencing Center, Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, One Baylor Plaza, Houston, Texas 77030, USA.
²⁰ Babes-Bolyai-University, Institute for Interdisciplinary Research in Bio-Nano-Sciences, Molecular Biology Center, Cluj-Napoca 400084, Romania.
²¹ Children's Hospital Oakland Research Institute, BACPAC Resources, Oakland, California 94609, USA.
²² University of Colorado School of Medicine, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Aurora, Colorado 80045, USA.
²³ Max Delbrück Center for Molecular Medicine, Berlin 13125, Germany.
²⁴ Centro Nacional de Análisis Genómico (CNAG), Parc Científic de Barcelona, Barcelona 08028, Spain.
²⁵ Indiana University, School of Informatics and Computing, Bloomington, Indiana 47408, USA.
²⁶ The Genome Center at Washington University, Washington University School of Medicine, 4444 Forest Park Avenue, Saint Louis, Missouri 63108, USA.
²⁷ Institute for Systems Biology, Seattle, Washington 98109-5234, USA.
²⁸ The Pennsylvania State University, Department of Anthropology, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, USA.
²⁹ University of Arizona, ARL Division of Biotechnology, Tucson, Arizona 85721, USA.
³⁰ University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Department of Developmental Biology, Department of Computational and Systems Biology, Pittsburg, Pennsylvania 15261, USA.
³¹ Oregon Health &Science University, Bioinformatics and Computational Biology Division, Department of Medical Informatics &Clinical Epidemiology, 3181 SW Sam Jackson Park Road, Portland, Oregon 97239, USA.
³² 1] The Genome Center at Washington University, Washington University School of Medicine, 4444 Forest Park Avenue, Saint Louis, Missouri 63108, USA. [2] Bill Lyons Informatics Center, UCL Cancer Institute, University College London, London WC1E 6DD, UK (J.He); Seven Bridges Genomics, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, USA (D.P.L.); Department of Genetics, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California 94305, USA (F.L.M.); BioNano Genomics, San Diego, California 92121, USA (B.t.H.); University of Chicago, Department of Human Genetics, Chicago, Illinois 60637, USA (M.C.W.); Stanley Center for Psychiatric Research, Broad Institute, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, USA (C.W.W.); The CAS Key Laboratory of Pathogenic Microbiology and Immunology, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China (B.Z.).
³³ Harvard Medical School, Department of Genetics, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, USA.
³⁴ 1] University of Arizona, ARL Division of Biotechnology, Tucson, Arizona 85721, USA. [2] Bill Lyons Informatics Center, UCL Cancer Institute, University College London, London WC1E 6DD, UK (J.He); Seven Bridges Genomics, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, USA (D.P.L.); Department of Genetics, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California 94305, USA (F.L.M.); BioNano Genomics, San Diego, California 92121, USA (B.t.H.); University of Chicago, Department of Human Genetics, Chicago, Illinois 60637, USA (M.C.W.); Stanley Center for Psychiatric Research, Broad Institute, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, USA (C.W.W.); The CAS Key Laboratory of Pathogenic Microbiology and Immunology, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China (B.Z.).
³⁵ Oregon National Primate Research Center, Division of Neuroscience, 505 NW 185th Avenue, Beaverton, Oregon 97006, USA.
³⁶ 1] European Bioinformatics Institute, Wellcome Trust Genome Campus, Hinxton, Cambridge CB10 1SD, UK. [2] University of Cambridge, Cancer Research UK-Cambridge Institute, Cambridge CB2 0RE, UK.
³⁷ 1] University of California, Gladstone Institutes, San Francisco, California 94158-226, USA. [2] Institute for Human Genetics, University of California, San Francisco, California 94143-0794, USA. [3] Division of Biostatistics, University of California, San Francisco, California 94143-0794, USA.
³⁸ Paul Ehrlich Institute, Division of Medical Biotechnology, 63225 Langen, Germany.
³⁹ European Bioinformatics Institute, Wellcome Trust Genome Campus, Hinxton, Cambridge CB10 1SD, UK.
⁴⁰ Gibbon Conservation Center, 19100 Esguerra Rd, Santa Clarita, California 91350, USA.
⁴¹ 1] Oregon Health &Science University, Bioinformatics and Computational Biology Division, Department of Medical Informatics &Clinical Epidemiology, 3181 SW Sam Jackson Park Road, Portland, Oregon 97239, USA. [2] Oregon Health &Science University, Center for Spoken Language Understanding, Institute on Development and Disability, Portland, Oregon 97239, USA.
⁴² 1] Children's Hospital Oakland Research Institute, BACPAC Resources, Oakland, California 94609, USA. [2] Bill Lyons Informatics Center, UCL Cancer Institute, University College London, London WC1E 6DD, UK (J.He); Seven Bridges Genomics, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, USA (D.P.L.); Department of Genetics, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California 94305, USA (F.L.M.); BioNano Genomics, San Diego, California 92121, USA (B.t.H.); University of Chicago, Department of Human Genetics, Chicago, Illinois 60637, USA (M.C.W.); Stanley Center for Psychiatric Research, Broad Institute, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, USA (C.W.W.); The CAS Key Laboratory of Pathogenic Microbiology and Immunology, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China (B.Z.).
⁴³ Louisiana State University, School of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70803, USA.
⁴⁴ 1] Institute for Human Genetics, University of California, San Francisco, California 94143-0794, USA. [2] Division of Biostatistics, University of California, San Francisco, California 94143-0794, USA.
⁴⁵ 1] University of Cambridge, Cancer Research UK-Cambridge Institute, Cambridge CB2 0RE, UK. [2] Bill Lyons Informatics Center, UCL Cancer Institute, University College London, London WC1E 6DD, UK (J.He); Seven Bridges Genomics, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, USA (D.P.L.); Department of Genetics, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California 94305, USA (F.L.M.); BioNano Genomics, San Diego, California 92121, USA (B.t.H.); University of Chicago, Department of Human Genetics, Chicago, Illinois 60637, USA (M.C.W.); Stanley Center for Psychiatric Research, Broad Institute, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, USA (C.W.W.); The CAS Key Laboratory of Pathogenic Microbiology and Immunology, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China (B.Z.).
⁴⁶ 1] Oregon Health &Science University, Center for Spoken Language Understanding, Institute on Development and Disability, Portland, Oregon 97239, USA. [2] Bill Lyons Informatics Center, UCL Cancer Institute, University College London, London WC1E 6DD, UK (J.He); Seven Bridges Genomics, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, USA (D.P.L.); Department of Genetics, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California 94305, USA (F.L.M.); BioNano Genomics, San Diego, California 92121, USA (B.t.H.); University of Chicago, Department of Human Genetics, Chicago, Illinois 60637, USA (M.C.W.); Stanley Center for Psychiatric Research, Broad Institute, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, USA (C.W.W.); The CAS Key Laboratory of Pathogenic Microbiology and Immunology, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China (B.Z.).
⁴⁷ 1] IBE, Institut de Biologia Evolutiva (UPF-CSIC), Universitat Pompeu Fabra, PRBB, Doctor Aiguader, 88, 08003 Barcelona, Spain. [2] Centro Nacional de Análisis Genómico (CNAG), Parc Científic de Barcelona, Barcelona 08028, Spain.

PMID: 25209798
PMCID: PMC4249732
DOI: 10.1038/nature13679

Gibbon genome and the fast karyotype evolution of small apes

Lucia Carbone et al. Nature. 2014.

. 2014 Sep 11;513(7517):195-201.

doi: 10.1038/nature13679.

Authors

Affiliations

¹ 1] Oregon Health &Science University, Department of Behavioral Neuroscience, 3181 SW Sam Jackson Park Road Portland, Oregon 97239, USA. [2] Oregon National Primate Research Center, Division of Neuroscience, 505 NW 185th Avenue, Beaverton, Oregon 97006, USA. [3] Oregon Health &Science University, Department of Molecular &Medical Genetics, 3181 SW Sam Jackson Park Road, Portland, Oregon 97239, USA. [4] Oregon Health &Science University, Bioinformatics and Computational Biology Division, Department of Medical Informatics &Clinical Epidemiology, 3181 SW Sam Jackson Park Road, Portland, Oregon 97239, USA.
² Baylor College of Medicine, Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, One Baylor Plaza, Houston, Texas 77030, USA.
³ Nabsys, 60 Clifford Street, Providence, Rhode Island 02903, USA.
⁴ 1] University of Arizona, ARL Division of Biotechnology, Tucson, Arizona 85721, USA. [2] Stony Brook University, Department of Ecology and Evolution, Stony Brook, New York 11790, USA.
⁵ IBE, Institut de Biologia Evolutiva (UPF-CSIC), Universitat Pompeu Fabra, PRBB, Doctor Aiguader, 88, 08003 Barcelona, Spain.
⁶ 1] Department of Genome Sciences, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, Washington 98195, USA. [2] Howard Hughes Medical Institute, 1705 NE Pacific Street, Seattle, Washington 98195, USA.
⁷ Oregon Health &Science University, Department of Behavioral Neuroscience, 3181 SW Sam Jackson Park Road Portland, Oregon 97239, USA.
⁸ 1] European Molecular Biology Laboratory, European Bioinformatics Institute, Wellcome Trust Genome Campus, Hinxton, Cambridge CB10 1SD, UK. [2] The Genome Analysis Centre, Norwich Research Park, Norwich NR4 7UH, UK. [3] Bill Lyons Informatics Center, UCL Cancer Institute, University College London, London WC1E 6DD, UK (J.He); Seven Bridges Genomics, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, USA (D.P.L.); Department of Genetics, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California 94305, USA (F.L.M.); BioNano Genomics, San Diego, California 92121, USA (B.t.H.); University of Chicago, Department of Human Genetics, Chicago, Illinois 60637, USA (M.C.W.); Stanley Center for Psychiatric Research, Broad Institute, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, USA (C.W.W.); The CAS Key Laboratory of Pathogenic Microbiology and Immunology, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China (B.Z.).
⁹ Leibniz Institute for Primate Research, Gene Bank of Primates, German Primate Center, Göttingen 37077, Germany.
¹⁰ 1] European Molecular Biology Laboratory, European Bioinformatics Institute, Wellcome Trust Genome Campus, Hinxton, Cambridge CB10 1SD, UK. [2] European Bioinformatics Institute, Wellcome Trust Genome Campus, Hinxton, Cambridge CB10 1SD, UK.
¹¹ University of Bari, Department of Biology, Via Orabona 4, 70125, Bari, Italy.
¹² Department of Genome Sciences, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, Washington 98195, USA.
¹³ Louisiana State University, Department of Biological Sciences, Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70803, USA.
¹⁴ European Molecular Biology Laboratory, European Bioinformatics Institute, Wellcome Trust Genome Campus, Hinxton, Cambridge CB10 1SD, UK.
¹⁵ University of Paul Sabatier, Toulouse 31062, France.
¹⁶ The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Department of Oncology, Division of Biostatistics and Bioinformatics, Baltimore, Maryland 21205, USA.
¹⁷ University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah 84112, USA.
¹⁸ Texas A&M University, Department of Ecosystem Science and Management, College Station, Texas 77843, USA.
¹⁹ Human Genome Sequencing Center, Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, One Baylor Plaza, Houston, Texas 77030, USA.
²⁰ Babes-Bolyai-University, Institute for Interdisciplinary Research in Bio-Nano-Sciences, Molecular Biology Center, Cluj-Napoca 400084, Romania.
²¹ Children's Hospital Oakland Research Institute, BACPAC Resources, Oakland, California 94609, USA.
²² University of Colorado School of Medicine, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Aurora, Colorado 80045, USA.
²³ Max Delbrück Center for Molecular Medicine, Berlin 13125, Germany.
²⁴ Centro Nacional de Análisis Genómico (CNAG), Parc Científic de Barcelona, Barcelona 08028, Spain.
²⁵ Indiana University, School of Informatics and Computing, Bloomington, Indiana 47408, USA.
²⁶ The Genome Center at Washington University, Washington University School of Medicine, 4444 Forest Park Avenue, Saint Louis, Missouri 63108, USA.
²⁷ Institute for Systems Biology, Seattle, Washington 98109-5234, USA.
²⁸ The Pennsylvania State University, Department of Anthropology, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, USA.
²⁹ University of Arizona, ARL Division of Biotechnology, Tucson, Arizona 85721, USA.
³⁰ University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Department of Developmental Biology, Department of Computational and Systems Biology, Pittsburg, Pennsylvania 15261, USA.
³¹ Oregon Health &Science University, Bioinformatics and Computational Biology Division, Department of Medical Informatics &Clinical Epidemiology, 3181 SW Sam Jackson Park Road, Portland, Oregon 97239, USA.
³² 1] The Genome Center at Washington University, Washington University School of Medicine, 4444 Forest Park Avenue, Saint Louis, Missouri 63108, USA. [2] Bill Lyons Informatics Center, UCL Cancer Institute, University College London, London WC1E 6DD, UK (J.He); Seven Bridges Genomics, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, USA (D.P.L.); Department of Genetics, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California 94305, USA (F.L.M.); BioNano Genomics, San Diego, California 92121, USA (B.t.H.); University of Chicago, Department of Human Genetics, Chicago, Illinois 60637, USA (M.C.W.); Stanley Center for Psychiatric Research, Broad Institute, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, USA (C.W.W.); The CAS Key Laboratory of Pathogenic Microbiology and Immunology, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China (B.Z.).
³³ Harvard Medical School, Department of Genetics, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, USA.
³⁴ 1] University of Arizona, ARL Division of Biotechnology, Tucson, Arizona 85721, USA. [2] Bill Lyons Informatics Center, UCL Cancer Institute, University College London, London WC1E 6DD, UK (J.He); Seven Bridges Genomics, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, USA (D.P.L.); Department of Genetics, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California 94305, USA (F.L.M.); BioNano Genomics, San Diego, California 92121, USA (B.t.H.); University of Chicago, Department of Human Genetics, Chicago, Illinois 60637, USA (M.C.W.); Stanley Center for Psychiatric Research, Broad Institute, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, USA (C.W.W.); The CAS Key Laboratory of Pathogenic Microbiology and Immunology, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China (B.Z.).
³⁵ Oregon National Primate Research Center, Division of Neuroscience, 505 NW 185th Avenue, Beaverton, Oregon 97006, USA.
³⁶ 1] European Bioinformatics Institute, Wellcome Trust Genome Campus, Hinxton, Cambridge CB10 1SD, UK. [2] University of Cambridge, Cancer Research UK-Cambridge Institute, Cambridge CB2 0RE, UK.
³⁷ 1] University of California, Gladstone Institutes, San Francisco, California 94158-226, USA. [2] Institute for Human Genetics, University of California, San Francisco, California 94143-0794, USA. [3] Division of Biostatistics, University of California, San Francisco, California 94143-0794, USA.
³⁸ Paul Ehrlich Institute, Division of Medical Biotechnology, 63225 Langen, Germany.
³⁹ European Bioinformatics Institute, Wellcome Trust Genome Campus, Hinxton, Cambridge CB10 1SD, UK.
⁴⁰ Gibbon Conservation Center, 19100 Esguerra Rd, Santa Clarita, California 91350, USA.
⁴¹ 1] Oregon Health &Science University, Bioinformatics and Computational Biology Division, Department of Medical Informatics &Clinical Epidemiology, 3181 SW Sam Jackson Park Road, Portland, Oregon 97239, USA. [2] Oregon Health &Science University, Center for Spoken Language Understanding, Institute on Development and Disability, Portland, Oregon 97239, USA.
⁴² 1] Children's Hospital Oakland Research Institute, BACPAC Resources, Oakland, California 94609, USA. [2] Bill Lyons Informatics Center, UCL Cancer Institute, University College London, London WC1E 6DD, UK (J.He); Seven Bridges Genomics, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, USA (D.P.L.); Department of Genetics, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California 94305, USA (F.L.M.); BioNano Genomics, San Diego, California 92121, USA (B.t.H.); University of Chicago, Department of Human Genetics, Chicago, Illinois 60637, USA (M.C.W.); Stanley Center for Psychiatric Research, Broad Institute, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, USA (C.W.W.); The CAS Key Laboratory of Pathogenic Microbiology and Immunology, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China (B.Z.).
⁴³ Louisiana State University, School of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70803, USA.
⁴⁴ 1] Institute for Human Genetics, University of California, San Francisco, California 94143-0794, USA. [2] Division of Biostatistics, University of California, San Francisco, California 94143-0794, USA.
⁴⁵ 1] University of Cambridge, Cancer Research UK-Cambridge Institute, Cambridge CB2 0RE, UK. [2] Bill Lyons Informatics Center, UCL Cancer Institute, University College London, London WC1E 6DD, UK (J.He); Seven Bridges Genomics, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, USA (D.P.L.); Department of Genetics, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California 94305, USA (F.L.M.); BioNano Genomics, San Diego, California 92121, USA (B.t.H.); University of Chicago, Department of Human Genetics, Chicago, Illinois 60637, USA (M.C.W.); Stanley Center for Psychiatric Research, Broad Institute, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, USA (C.W.W.); The CAS Key Laboratory of Pathogenic Microbiology and Immunology, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China (B.Z.).
⁴⁶ 1] Oregon Health &Science University, Center for Spoken Language Understanding, Institute on Development and Disability, Portland, Oregon 97239, USA. [2] Bill Lyons Informatics Center, UCL Cancer Institute, University College London, London WC1E 6DD, UK (J.He); Seven Bridges Genomics, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, USA (D.P.L.); Department of Genetics, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California 94305, USA (F.L.M.); BioNano Genomics, San Diego, California 92121, USA (B.t.H.); University of Chicago, Department of Human Genetics, Chicago, Illinois 60637, USA (M.C.W.); Stanley Center for Psychiatric Research, Broad Institute, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, USA (C.W.W.); The CAS Key Laboratory of Pathogenic Microbiology and Immunology, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China (B.Z.).
⁴⁷ 1] IBE, Institut de Biologia Evolutiva (UPF-CSIC), Universitat Pompeu Fabra, PRBB, Doctor Aiguader, 88, 08003 Barcelona, Spain. [2] Centro Nacional de Análisis Genómico (CNAG), Parc Científic de Barcelona, Barcelona 08028, Spain.

PMID: 25209798
PMCID: PMC4249732
DOI: 10.1038/nature13679

Abstract

Gibbons are small arboreal apes that display an accelerated rate of evolutionary chromosomal rearrangement and occupy a key node in the primate phylogeny between Old World monkeys and great apes. Here we present the assembly and analysis of a northern white-cheeked gibbon (Nomascus leucogenys) genome. We describe the propensity for a gibbon-specific retrotransposon (LAVA) to insert into chromosome segregation genes and alter transcription by providing a premature termination site, suggesting a possible molecular mechanism for the genome plasticity of the gibbon lineage. We further show that the gibbon genera (Nomascus, Hylobates, Hoolock and Symphalangus) experienced a near-instantaneous radiation ∼5 million years ago, coincident with major geographical changes in southeast Asia that caused cycles of habitat compression and expansion. Finally, we identify signatures of positive selection in genes important for forelimb development (TBX5) and connective tissues (COL1A1) that may have been involved in the adaptation of gibbons to their arboreal habitat.

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Conflict of interest statement

E.E.E. is on the scientific advisory board (SAB) of DNAnexus and was an SAB member of Pacific Biosciences (2009–2013) and SynapDx (2011–2013).

Figures

**Figure 1. Geographic distribution of gibbon species used in the study.**
We sequenced two individuals from each gibbon genus and two different species (*H. moloch* and *H. pileatus*) for the genus *Hylobates*. The extant geographic localization for each genus is illustrated on the map. Individuals in the photos are the ones sequenced in this study. The asterisk symbol indicates a deceased animal. PowerPoint slide

**Figure 2. Analysis of gibbon–human synteny and breakpoints.**
a, Oxford plots for human chromosomes (y axis) vs. chimpanzee, gorilla, orangutan, gibbon, rhesus macaque and marmoset chromosomes (x axis). Each line represents a collinear block larger than 10 Mb. The gibbon genome displays a significantly larger number of large-scale rearrangements than all the other species. In the gorilla plot, chromosomes 4 and 19 stand out as the product of a reciprocal translocation between chromosomes syntenic to human chromosomes 5 and 17. b, The graph shows the number of collinear blocks in primate genomes with respect to the human genome. The number of collinear blocks is a proxy for the number of rearrangements and decreases as the size of the blocks becomes larger. The gibbon genome has undergone a greater number of large-scale rearrangements; however, the number of small-scale rearrangements is comparable with the other species. The extremely low number of large rearrangements in the gorilla genome (dotted green line) is a reflection of the use of the human genome as a template in the assembly process. c, Examples of gibbon–human synteny breakpoints. The first two are class I breakpoints (that is, base-pair resolution) originated through non-homology based mechanisms. NLE12_1 is the result of an inversion in human chromosome 1 and NLE18_6 is the result of a translocation between human chromosomes 16 and 5 with an untemplated insertion in the gibbon sequence shown in purple; in both cases, micro-homologies in the human sequences are shown in red. The last example (NLE9_4) is a class II breakpoint (3.2 kb) containing a mixture of repetitive sequences. PowerPoint slide

**Figure 3. The LAVA element and evidence for LAVA-mediated early transcription termination.**
a, Schematic view of the LAVA element highlights the main components that originated from common repeats (L1, *Alu*, VNTR and *Alu*-like). Target-site duplications (TSDs) and the poly(A) tail are also indicated. b, Luciferase reporter constructs used to assay for LAVA-mediated early transcriptional termination (left panel) and results of the luciferase reporter assay (right panel) showing increased luciferase activity by ∼50% relative to the background for pmiRGlo_LA_F (*P = 0.0013) (see Supplementary Information section S7.8) n = 5, five biological replicates, from five independent transfections done for each experimental condition tested. The experiment shown was replicated twice in the laboratory. Statistics were carried out using a Student’s t-test (two sided), P values for all pairwise comparisons LA_F vs. LA_E, ΔPA vs. LA_F, and ΔPA vs. LA_E respectively (with 95% CI) were adjusted for multiple comparisons according to the Bonferroni method. Centre values show the average, error bars indicate standard deviation. c, A median-joining network showing the relationships among the 22 LAVA subfamilies generated by comparing the 3′ intact LAVA elements. Coloured circles represent subfamilies and their size is proportional to the number of elements in the subfamily (numbers inside each circle). Black dots represent hypothetical sequences connecting adjacent subfamilies. All possible relationships are shown. Branch lengths are not drawn to scale. PowerPoint slide

**Figure 4. Gibbon phylogeny and demography.**
a, The three most frequently observed UPGMA gene trees (numbers at the top) constructed across the genome at 100-kb sliding windows and posterior probabilities (numbers at the bottom) for the same species topologies from a coalescent-based ABC analysis. The relatively low numbers observed suggest presence of substantial ILS amongst the gibbon genera. b, Parameters estimates describing gibbon population demography assuming an instant radiation for all four genera (left) and the most probable bifurcating species topology (right). Black, green and red numbers indicate divergence times and N_e as calculated by ABC, BEAST and G-PhoCS analysis, respectively (Supplementary Information section S9). c, PSMC analysis estimating changes in historical N_e. The large increase in N_e observed in our PSMC plot for SSY in recent times is probably exaggerated due to higher sequencing error and mapping biases in non-NLE samples (see details in Supplementary section S8). A generation time of 10 years^, was used to obtain a per generation mutation rate of 1 × 10⁻⁸ per year. PowerPoint slide

**Extended Data Figure 1. The gibbon assembly statistics and quality control.**
a, The table compares the gibbon assembly statistics to those of other primates sequenced with a similar strategy. b, The plot represents the percentage of the 10,734 single-copy gene HMMs (hidden Markov models) for which just one gene (blue) is found in the different mammalian genomes in Ensembl 70. Other HMMs match more than one gene (red). The missing HMMs (cyan) either do not match any protein or the score is within the range of what can be expected for unrelated proteins. The remaining category (green) represents HMMs for which the best matching gene scores better than unrelated proteins but not as well as expected. See Supplementary Information section 1.4 for more details.

**Extended Data Figure 2. Analysis of gibbon–human synteny blocks and identification and validation of gibbon segmental duplications.**
a, The image shows a representative gibbon-only whole-genome shotgun sequence detection (WSSD) call by Sanger read depth. The duplication identified in this case overlaps with the gene *CHAD* that codes for a cartilage matrix protein. b, Examples of fluorescence *in situ* hybridizations on gibbon metaphases using duplicated human fosmid clones that were identified by the (WGS) detection strategy (red signals). Left, interchromosomal duplication. Middle, interspersed intrachromosomal duplication. Right, intrachromosomal tandem duplication confirmed using co-hybridization with a single control probe (blue signals). c, Megabases of lineage-specific and shared duplications for primates based on GRChr37 read depth analysis. Copy-number corrected values by species are shown below.

**Extended Data Figure 3. Analysis of LAVA element insertion in genes and early termination of transcription.**
a, The histogram shows the results of permutation analyses. We find a significant association between LAVA elements and genes. Moreover, insertions are significantly enriched in introns and depleted in exons, most probably as a result of selection against insertions in exons. b, Schematic representation of the mechanism through which LAVA intronic insertions in antisense orientation might cause early termination of transcription. The truncated transcript is indicated on the diagram as A and normal transcript indicated on the diagram as B (pA = polyadenylation site). c, We calculated the distance to the nearest exon for each intronic LAVA and compared this to what would be expected for random insertions (that is, background). We found fewer insertions than expected by chance within 1 kb of the nearest exon. d, Identification of pmiRGlo_LA_F polyadenylation sites by 3′ RACE. Alignment of thirteen 3′ RACE PCR clone sequences and the pmiRGlo_LA_F sequence. LAVA_F 3′ TSD is highlighted by dark green background; the major antisense LAVA_F polyadenylation signal (MAPS) is highlighted by red background. The termination sites are marked with arrows on the LAVA_F sequence. Poly(A) tails of the identified transcripts are in red text.

**Extended Data Figure 4. Evolution of the LAVA element.**
a, Screenshots from the Integrative Genomics Viewer (IGV) browser for loci *MAP4*, *RABGAP1* and *BBS9*. Each column shows portions of the IGV visualization of a LAVA insertion locus identified in Nleu1.0 and its flanking sequence. Red rectangles indicate the margins of each LAVA insertion. Read pairs are coloured red when their insert size is larger than expected, indicating the presence of an unshared LAVA insertion. *MAP4* is a shared LAVA insertion, whereas *RABGAP1* and *BBS9* are *Nomascus* specific. b, LAVA elements containing at least 300 bp of the LA section of LAVA were selected and reanalysed using RepeatMasker to determine subfamily affiliation and divergence from the consensus sequence. LAVA elements are grouped based upon their subfamily affiliations (see legend top right for colour scheme). The x axis shows the per cent divergence from the respective consensus sequence and the y axis shows the number of elements with a certain per cent divergence from the consensus sequence.

**Extended Data Figure 5. Analysis of the phylogenetic relationships between gibbon genera.**
a, Neighbour-joining trees for gibbons using non-genic loci. b, UPGMA trees for 100 kb non-overlapping sliding windows moving along the gibbon genome reporting the top 15 topologies (see also Supplementary Table ST8.3). The percentage of total support for each topology is given within each subpanel.

**Extended Data Figure 6. Analysis of the relationship between gibbon accelerated regions (gibARs) and genes.**
a, Intergenic regions are enriched in gibARs. Different sequence types are shown on the x axis and the y axis displays the fraction of gibARs and candidate regions annotated to the respective class. gibARs are significantly enriched in intergenic regions (P = 4.7 × 10⁻⁶) and significantly depleted in exons (P = 7.3 × 10⁻⁶). P values for each class were calculated with the Fisher’s exact test. Introns are comparably prevalent in candidates and gibARs, whereas in the UTR and flanking region, counts are too low to draw meaningful conclusions (data not shown). b, TreeMap from REVIGO for GOslim Biological Process terms with a Benjamini–Hochberg false discovery rate of 5%. Each rectangle is a cluster representative; larger rectangles represent ‘superclusters’ including loosely related terms. The size of the rectangles reflects the P value.

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Genomics: Something to swing about.
O'Neill MJ, O'Neill RJ. O'Neill MJ, et al. Nature. 2014 Sep 11;513(7517):174-5. doi: 10.1038/513174a. Nature. 2014. PMID: 25209792 No abstract available.

References

1. Mittermeier, R. A., Rylands, A. B. & Wilson, D. E. Handbook of the Mammals of the World Vol. 3 (Lynx Edicions,. (2013)
1. Carbone L, et al. A high-resolution map of synteny disruptions in gibbon and human genomes. PLoS Genet. 2006;2:e223. - PMC - PubMed
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1. Girirajan S, et al. Sequencing human–gibbon breakpoints of synteny reveals mosaic new insertions at rearrangement sites. Genome Res. 2009;19:178–190. - PMC - PubMed

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Gibbon genome and the fast karyotype evolution of small apes

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Gibbon genome and the fast karyotype evolution of small apes

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