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. 2015 Mar-Apr;86(2):342-61.
doi: 10.1111/cdev.12295. Epub 2014 Sep 26.

Genetic and environmental etiologies of the longitudinal relations between prereading skills and reading

Micaela E Christopher  1 , Jacqueline Hulslander, Brian Byrne, Stefan Samuelsson, Janice M Keenan, Bruce Pennington, John C DeFries, Sally J Wadsworth, Erik Willcutt, Richard K Olson
Affiliations

Genetic and environmental etiologies of the longitudinal relations between prereading skills and reading

Micaela E Christopher et al. Child Dev. 2015 Mar-Apr.

Abstract

The present study explored the environmental and genetic etiologies of the longitudinal relations between prereading skills and reading and spelling. Twin pairs (n = 489) were assessed before kindergarten (M = 4.9 years), post-first grade (M = 7.4 years), and post-fourth grade (M = 10.4 years). Genetic influences on five prereading skills (print knowledge, rapid naming, phonological awareness, vocabulary, and verbal memory) were primarily responsible for relations with word reading and spelling. However, relations with post-fourth-grade reading comprehension were due to both genetic and shared environmental influences. Genetic and shared environmental influences that were common among the prereading variables covaried with reading and spelling, as did genetic influences unique to verbal memory (only post-fourth-grade comprehension), print knowledge, and rapid naming.

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Figures

Figure 1
Figure 1
Behavioral Genetic Nested Model of Pre-reading Variables. Ovals represent latent variables while squares represent measured variables. All loadings on single-headed arrows are standardized regression coefficients and are significant at p < .05, with the exception of Phonological Awareness to CTOPP Sound Matching (dashed line). Single-headed arrows and numbers below the observed variables show the amount of residual variance independent of the latent variable. Percentages above the A (genetic), C (shared environmental), and E (non-shared environmental) latent variables show the genetic and environmental proportions of variance. If shaded, A, C, and E estimates are significant. CAP = concepts about print; S & P Blending = syllable and phoneme blending; S & P Elision = syllable and phoneme elision.
Figure 2
Figure 2
Behavioral Genetic Correlated Factors Model of Pre-reading Variables with Word Reading (TOWRE Sight Word Reading Efficiency). Numbers on double-headed arrows are phenotypically standardized covariances, such that the phenotypic correlation (double-headed arrow connecting P components) is the sum of the additive genetic covariance (A), shared environmental covariance (C), and non-shared environmental covariance (E). Solid lines and bold numbers depict significant correlations/covariances. While all phenotypically standardized covariances were estimated, only the ACE decompositions of significant phenotypic correlations are shown.
Figure 3
Figure 3
Behavioral Genetic Correlated Factors Model of Pre-reading Variables with Reading Comprehension (Woodcock Passage Comprehension). Numbers on double-headed arrows are phenotypically standardized covariances, such that the phenotypic correlation (double-headed arrow connecting P components) is the sum of the additive genetic covariance (A), shared environmental covariance (C), and non-shared environmental covariance (E). Solid lines and bold numbers depict significant correlations/covariances. While all phenotypically standardized covariances were estimated, only the ACE decompositions of significant phenotypic correlation s are shown.
Figure 4
Figure 4
Behavioral Genetic Correlated Factors Model of Pre-reading Variables with Spelling (WRAT Spelling). Numbers on double-headed arrows are phenotypically standardized covariances, such that the phenotypic correlation (double-headed arrow connecting P components) is the sum of the additive genetic covariance (A), shared environmental covariance (C), and non-shared environmental covariance (E). Solid lines and bold numbers depict significant correlations/covariances. While all phenotypically standardized covariances were estimated, only the ACE decompositions of significant phenotypic correlations are shown.
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