Skip to main page content
U.S. flag

An official website of the United States government

Dot gov

The .gov means it’s official.
Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

Https

The site is secure.
The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

Access keys NCBI Homepage MyNCBI Homepage Main Content Main Navigation
Meta-Analysis
. 2015 Apr 16;2015(4):CD004380.
doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD004380.pub3.

School-based education programmes for the prevention of child sexual abuse

Kerryann Walsh  1 , Karen Zwi, Susan Woolfenden, Aron Shlonsky
Affiliations
Meta-Analysis

School-based education programmes for the prevention of child sexual abuse

Kerryann Walsh et al. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. .

Abstract

Background: Child sexual abuse is a significant global problem in both magnitude and sequelae. The most widely used primary prevention strategy has been the provision of school-based education programmes. Although programmes have been taught in schools since the 1980s, their effectiveness requires ongoing scrutiny.

Objectives: To systematically assess evidence of the effectiveness of school-based education programmes for the prevention of child sexual abuse. Specifically, to assess whether: programmes are effective in improving students' protective behaviours and knowledge about sexual abuse prevention; behaviours and skills are retained over time; and participation results in disclosures of sexual abuse, produces harms, or both.

Search methods: In September 2014, we searched CENTRAL, Ovid MEDLINE, EMBASE and 11 other databases. We also searched two trials registers and screened the reference lists of previous reviews for additional trials.

Selection criteria: We selected randomised controlled trials (RCTs), cluster-RCTs, and quasi-RCTs of school-based education interventions for the prevention of child sexual abuse compared with another intervention or no intervention.

Data collection and analysis: Two review authors independently assessed the eligibility of trials for inclusion, extracted data, and assessed risk of bias. We summarised data for six outcomes: protective behaviours; knowledge of sexual abuse or sexual abuse prevention concepts; retention of protective behaviours over time; retention of knowledge over time; harm; and disclosures of sexual abuse.

Main results: This is an update of a Cochrane Review that included 15 trials (up to August 2006). We identified 10 additional trials for the period to September 2014. We excluded one trial from the original review. Therefore, this update includes a total of 24 trials (5802 participants). We conducted several meta-analyses. More than half of the trials in each meta-analysis contained unit of analysis errors.1. Meta-analysis of two trials (n = 102) evaluating protective behaviours favoured intervention (odds ratio (OR) 5.71, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.98 to 16.51), with borderline low to moderate heterogeneity (Chi² = 1.37, df = 1, P value = 0.24, I² = 27%, Tau² = 0.16). The results did not change when we made adjustments using intraclass correlation coefficients (ICCs) to correct errors made in studies where data were analysed without accounting for the clustering of students in classes or schools.2. Meta-analysis of 18 trials (n = 4657) evaluating questionnaire-based knowledge favoured intervention (standardised mean difference (SMD) 0.61, 95% CI 0.45 to 0.78), but there was substantial heterogeneity (Chi² = 104.76, df = 17, P value < 0.00001, I² = 84%, Tau² = 0.10). The results did not change when adjusted for clustering (ICC: 0.1 SMD 0.66, 95% CI 0.51 to 0.81; ICC: 0.2 SMD 0.63, 95% CI 0.50 to 0.77).3. Meta-analysis of 11 trials (n =1688) evaluating vignette-based knowledge favoured intervention (SMD 0.45, 95% CI 0.24 to 0.65), but there was substantial heterogeneity (Chi² = 34.25, df = 10, P value < 0.0002, I² = 71%, Tau² = 0.08). The results did not change when adjusted for clustering (ICC: 0.1 SMD 0.53, 95% CI 0.32 to 0.74; ICC: 0.2 SMD 0.60, 95% CI 0.31 to 0.89).4. We included four trials in the meta-analysis for retention of knowledge over time. The effect of intervention seemed to persist beyond the immediate assessment (SMD 0.78, 95% CI 0.38 to 1.17; I² = 84%, Tau² = 0.13, P value = 0.0003; n = 956) to six months (SMD 0.69, 95% CI 0.51 to 0.87; I² = 25%; Tau² = 0.01, P value = 0.26; n = 929). The results did not change when adjustments were made using ICCs.5. We included three studies in the meta-analysis for adverse effects (harm) manifesting as child anxiety or fear. The results showed no increase or decrease in anxiety or fear in intervention participants (SMD -0.08, 95% CI -0.22 to 0.07; n = 795) and there was no heterogeneity (I² = 0%, P value = 0.79; n=795). The results did not change when adjustments were made using ICCs.6. We included three studies (n = 1788) in the meta-analysis for disclosure of previous or current sexual abuse. The results favoured intervention (OR 3.56, 95% CI 1.13 to 11.24), with no heterogeneity (I² = 0%, P value = 0.84). However, adjusting for the effect of clustering had the effect of widening the confidence intervals around the OR (ICC: 0.1 OR 3.04, 95% CI 0.75 to 12.33; ICC: 0.2 OR 2.95, 95% CI 0.69 to 12.61).Insufficient information was provided in the included studies to conduct planned subgroup analyses and there were insufficient studies to conduct meaningful analyses.The quality of evidence for all outcomes included in the meta-analyses was moderate owing to unclear risk of selection bias across most studies, high or unclear risk of detection bias across over half of included studies, and high or unclear risk of attrition bias across most studies. The results should be interpreted cautiously.

Authors' conclusions: The studies included in this review show evidence of improvements in protective behaviours and knowledge among children exposed to school-based programmes, regardless of the type of programme. The results might have differed had the true ICCs or cluster-adjusted results been available. There is evidence that children's knowledge does not deteriorate over time, although this requires further research with longer-term follow-up. Programme participation does not generate increased or decreased child anxiety or fear, however there is a need for ongoing monitoring of both positive and negative short- and long-term effects. The results show that programme participation may increase the odds of disclosure, however there is a need for more programme evaluations to routinely collect such data. Further investigation of the moderators of programme effects is required along with longitudinal or data linkage studies that can assess actual prevention of child sexual abuse.

PubMed Disclaimer

Conflict of interest statement

Kerryann Walsh ‐ acknowledges the Australian Research Council Discovery Projects Scheme (DP1093717) funding for research about sexual abuse prevention programmes in Australia that was conducted in parallel to this review.

Karen Zwi and Susan Woolfenden have access to 'training, education, and study leave' (TESL) funds from their organisation, to attend conferences to present or to learn. This pays for travel, accommodation, per diem allowance, and registration fees.

Aron Shlonsky ‐ none known.

Figures

1
1
'Risk of bias' summary: review authors' judgements about each risk of bias item for each included study
2
2
'Risk of bias' graph: review authors' judgements about each risk of bias item presented as percentages across all included studies
3
3
Study flow diagram for searches 2006‐2014
4
4
Funnel plot of studies included in meta‐analysis for questionnaire‐based knowledge
5
5
Funnel plot of studies included in meta‐analysis for vignette‐based knowledge
1.1
1.1. Analysis
Comparison 1 Protective behaviours, Outcome 1 Protective behaviours, no correction for clustering.
1.2
1.2. Analysis
Comparison 1 Protective behaviours, Outcome 2 Protective behaviours, ICC=0.1.
1.3
1.3. Analysis
Comparison 1 Protective behaviours, Outcome 3 Protective behaviours, ICC=0.2.
2.1
2.1. Analysis
Comparison 2 Knowledge, Outcome 1 Questionnaire‐based knowledge, no correction for clustering.
2.2
2.2. Analysis
Comparison 2 Knowledge, Outcome 2 Questionnaire‐based knowledge, ICC = 0.1.
2.3
2.3. Analysis
Comparison 2 Knowledge, Outcome 3 Questionnaire‐based knowledge, ICC = 0.2.
2.4
2.4. Analysis
Comparison 2 Knowledge, Outcome 4 Vignette‐based knowledge, no correction for clustering.
2.5
2.5. Analysis
Comparison 2 Knowledge, Outcome 5 Vignette‐based knowledge, ICC = 0.1.
2.6
2.6. Analysis
Comparison 2 Knowledge, Outcome 6 Vignette‐based knowledge, ICC = 0.2.
3.1
3.1. Analysis
Comparison 3 Retention over time, Outcome 1 Questionnaire‐based knowledge, no correction for clustering.
3.2
3.2. Analysis
Comparison 3 Retention over time, Outcome 2 Questionnaire‐based knowledge, ICC = 0.1.
3.3
3.3. Analysis
Comparison 3 Retention over time, Outcome 3 Questionnaire‐based knowledge, ICC = 0.2.
4.1
4.1. Analysis
Comparison 4 Harm, Outcome 1 Harm, no correction for clustering.
4.2
4.2. Analysis
Comparison 4 Harm, Outcome 2 Harm, ICC=0.1.
4.3
4.3. Analysis
Comparison 4 Harm, Outcome 3 Harm, ICC=0.2.
5.1
5.1. Analysis
Comparison 5 Disclosures, Outcome 1 Disclosures, no correction for clustering.
5.2
5.2. Analysis
Comparison 5 Disclosures, Outcome 2 Disclosures, ICC=0.1.
5.3
5.3. Analysis
Comparison 5 Disclosures, Outcome 3 Disclosures, ICC=0.2.
See this image and copyright information in PMC

Update of

Similar articles

See all similar articles

Cited by

See all "Cited by" articles

References

References to studies included in this review

Blumberg 1991 {published and unpublished data}
    1. Blumberg EJ. The Effects of Two Sexual Abuse Prevention Training Programs on the Evaluation of Touches [MA Psych thesis]. San Diego: San Diego State University, 1987.
    1. Blumberg EJ, Chadwick MW, Fogarty LA, Speth TW, Chadwick DL. The touch discrimination component of sexual abuse prevention training: unanticipated positive consequences. Journal of Interpersonal Violence 1991;6(1):12‐28.
    1. Chadwick MW. A Comparative Evaluation of Two Sexual Abuse Prevention Programs for Children [PhD thesis]. Irvine, United States: University of California, 1989.
Chen 2012 {published and unpublished data}
    1. Chen YI, Fortson BL, Tseng KW. Pilot evaluation of a sexual abuse prevention program for Taiwanese children. Journal of Child Sexual Abuse 2012;21(6):621‐45. - PubMed
Crowley 1989 {unpublished data only}
    1. Crowley KJ. Evaluation of Good Touches/Bad Touches: A Program to Prevent Child Sexual Abuse in School Age Children [Psy.D. thesis]. New York, United States: Pace University, 1989.
Daigneault 2012 {published data only}
    1. Daigneault I, Hébert M, McDuff P, Frappier JY. Evaluation of a sexual abuse prevention workshop in a multicultural, impoverished urban area. Journal of Child Sexual Abuse 2012;21(5):521‐42. - PubMed
Dake 2003 {published data only}
    1. Dake JA, Price JH, Murnan J. Evaluation of a child abuse prevention curriculum for third‐grade students: assessment of knowledge and efficacy expectations. Journal of School Health 2003;73(2):76‐82. - PubMed
Dawson 1987 {unpublished data only}
    1. Dawson GF. An Evaluation of Cognitive and Affective Outcomes of a Prevention Program for Childhood Sexual Abuse [EdD thesis]. Tennessee, United States: Memphis State University, 1987.
Del Campo Sanchez 2006 {published data only}
    1. Campo Sanchez A, Sanchez F. Evaluation of school‐based child sexual abuse prevention program [Evaluacion de un programa de prevencion de abusos sexuales a menores en Educacion Primaria]. 2006 Psicothema;18(1):1‐8. - PubMed
Fryer 1987a {published data only}
    1. Fryer Jr GE, Kraizer SK, Miyoshi T. Measuring actual reduction of risk to child abuse: a new approach. Child Abuse & Neglect 1987;11(2):173‐9. - PubMed
    1. Fryer Jr GE, Kraizer SK, Miyoshi T. Measuring children's retention of skills to resist stranger abduction: use of the simulation technique. Child Abuse & Neglect 1987;11(2):181‐5. - PubMed
Grendel 1991 {unpublished data only}
    1. Grendel MA. Cognitive and Emotional Effects of a Brief Child Sexual Abuse Prevention Program for First Graders [EdD thesis]. Ohio, United States: University of Cincinnati, 1991.
Harvey 1988 {published data only}
    1. Harvey P, Forehand R, Brown C, Holmes T. The prevention of sexual abuse: examination of the effectiveness of a program with kindergarten‐age children. Behavior Therapy 1988;19(3):429‐35.
Hazzard 1991 {published data only}
    1. Hazzard A, Webb C, Kleemeier C, Angert L, Pohl J. Child sexual abuse prevention: evaluation and one‐year follow‐up. Child Abuse & Neglect 1991;15(1‐2):123‐38. - PubMed
Hébert 2001 {published data only}
    1. Hébert M, Lavoie F, Piche C, Poitras M. Proximate effects of a child sexual abuse prevention program in elementary school children. Child Abuse & Neglect 2001;25(4):505‐22. - PubMed
Kolko 1989 {published data only}
    1. Kolko DJ, Moser JT, Hughes J. Classroom training in sexual victimization awareness and prevention skills: an extension of the Red Flag/Green Flag people program. Journal of Family Violence 1989;4(1):25‐45.
Krahé 2009 {published data only}
    1. Krahé B, Knappert L. A group‐randomized evaluation of a theatre‐based sexual abuse prevention programme for primary school children in Germany. Journal of Community & Applied Social Psychology 2009;19(4):321‐9.
Kraizer 1991 {published and unpublished data}
    1. Kraizer S. The Safe Child Program for the Prevention of Child Abuse: Development and Evaluation of a School‐Based Curriculum [PhD thesis]. Ohio, United States: The Union Institute, 1991.
    1. Kraizer S, Witte SS, Fryer GE. Child sexual abuse prevention programs: what makes them effective in protecting children?. Children Today 1989;18(5):23‐7. - PubMed
Lee 1998 {published data only}
    1. Lee YK, Tang CS. Evaluation of a sexual abuse prevention program for female Chinese adolescents with mild mental retardation. American Journal of Mental Retardation 1998;103(2):105‐16. - PubMed
Oldfield 1996 {published data only}
    1. Oldfield D, Hays BJ, Megel ME. Evaluation of the effectiveness of Project Trust: an elementary school‐based victimization prevention strategy. Child Abuse & Neglect 1996;20(9):821‐32. - PubMed
Poche 1988 {published data only}
    1. Poche C, Yoder P, Miltenberger R. Teaching self‐protection to children using television techniques. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis 1988;21(3):253‐61. - PMC - PubMed
Saslawsky 1986 {published data only}
    1. Saslawsky DA, Wurtele SK. Educating children about sexual abuse: implications for pediatric intervention and possible prevention. Journal of Pediatric Psychology 1986;11(2):235‐45. - PubMed
Snyder 1986 {unpublished data only}
    1. Snyder CM. An Evaluation of the "Good Secrets, Bad Secrets" Assault Prevention Program [PhD thesis]. California, United States: International University, 1986.
Tutty 1997 {published data only}
    1. Tutty LM. Child sexual abuse prevention programs: evaluating 'Who do you tell'. Child Abuse & Neglect 1997;21(9):869‐81. - PubMed
    1. Tutty LM. What children learn from sexual abuse prevention programs: difficult concept and developmental issues. Research on Social Work Practice 2000;10(3):275‐300.
Wolfe 1986 {published data only}
    1. Wolfe DA, MacPherson T, Blount R, Wolfe VV. Evaluation of a brief intervention for educating school children in awareness of physical and sexual abuse. Child Abuse & Neglect 1986;10(1):85‐92. - PubMed
Wurtele 1986 {published data only}
    1. Wurtele SK, Saslawsky DA, Miller CL, Marrs SR, Britcher JC. Teaching personal safety skills for potential prevention of sexual abuse: a comparison of treatments. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 1986;54(5):688‐92. - PubMed
Ҫeҫen‐Eroğul 2013 {published data only}
    1. Ҫeҫen‐Eroğul AR, Kaf Hasirci Ӧ. The effectiveness of psycho‐educational school‐based child sexual abuse prevention training program on Turkish elementary students. Educational Sciences, Theory & Practice 2013;13(2):725‐9.

References to studies excluded from this review

Ages 1991 {published data only}
    1. Ages SE. An Evaluation of the Maintenance of Changes in Knowledge and Behaviour Skills Effected by a School‐Based Personal Safety Program for the Primary Grades [PhD thesis]. Ottawa, Canada: Carleton University, 1991.
Alexander 1998 {published data only}
    1. Alexander AD. The Assessment of a School‐Based Intervention for the Prevention of Child Sexual Abuse [EdD thesis]. Toronto, Canada: University of Toronto, 1998.
Araji 1995 {published data only}
    1. Araji SK, Fenton R, Straugh T. Child sexual abuse: description and evaluation of a K‐6 prevention curriculum. Journal of Primary Prevention 1995;16(2):149‐64. - PubMed
Bae 2009 {published data only}
    1. Bae J, Panuncio R. Development of computer‐assisted instruction program for child sexual abuse prevention. International Journal of Computer Science and Network Security 2009;9(3):142‐7.
Baker 2013 {published data only}
    1. Baker CK, Gleason K, Naai R, Mitchell J, Trecker C. Increasing knowledge of sexual abuse: a study with elementary school children in Hawai'i. Research on Social Work Practice 2013;23(2):167‐78.
Baker 2014 {published data only}
    1. Baker CK, Naai R, Mitchell J, Trecker C. Utilizing a train‐the‐trainer model for sexual violence prevention: findings from a pilot study with high school students of Asian and Pacific Islander descent in Hawai'i. Asian American Journal of Psychology 2014;5(2):106‐15.
Barron 2013 {published data only}
    1. Barron IG, Topping KJ. Exploratory evaluation of a school‐based child sexual abuse prevention program. Journal of Child Sexual Abuse 2013;22(9):931‐48. - PubMed
Binder 1987a {published data only}
    1. Binder RL, McNiel DE. Evaluation of a school‐based sexual abuse prevention program: cognitive and emotional effects. Child Abuse & Neglect 1987;11(4):497‐506. - PubMed
Bodzy 1988 {published data only}
    1. Bodzy LL. The Effects of a Personal Safety Program on Affective Measures of Child Development [EdD thesis]. Tennessee, United States: Peabody College for Teachers of Vanderbilt University, 1988.
Boyle 2005 {published data only}
    1. Boyle CL, Lutzker JR. Teaching young children to discriminate abusive from nonabusive situations using multiple exemplars in a modified discrete trial teaching format. Journal of Family Violence 2005;20(2):55‐69.
Briggs 1994 {published data only}
    1. Briggs F, Hawkins RMF. Follow‐up data on the effectiveness of New Zealand's national school‐based child protection program. Child Abuse & Neglect 1994;18(8):635‐43. - PubMed
Briggs 1996 {published data only}
    1. Briggs F, Hawkins RMF. Low socio‐economic status children are disadvantaged in the provision of school‐based child protection programmes. British Journal of Social Work 1996;26(5):664‐78.
Casper 1999 {published data only}
    1. Casper R. Characteristics of children who experience positive or negative reactions to a sexual abuse prevention program. Journal of Child Sexual Abuse 1999;7(4):97‐112.
Conte 1985 {published data only}
    1. Conte JR, Rosen C, Saperstein L, Shermack R. An evaluation of a program to prevent the sexual victimization of young children. Child Abuse & Neglect 1985;9(3):319‐28. - PubMed
Counts 2003 {published data only}
    1. Counts MA. Smart Kids/Safe Kids: Evaluation of a Child Sexual Abuse Prevention Program [PhD thesis]. Tennessee, United States: Tennessee State University, 2003.
Currier 1996 {published data only}
    1. Currier LL, Wurtele SK. A pilot study of previously abused and non‐sexually abused children's responses to a personal safety program. Journal of Child Sexual Abuse 1996;5(1):71‐87.
Deretzotes 1989 {published data only}
    1. Deretzotes DS. Evaluation of High School Level CAPTA Child Abuse Prevention Programs [PhD thesis]. Berkeley, California, United States: University of California, 1989.
Dhooper 1995 {published data only}
    1. Dhooper SS, Schneider PL. Evaluation of a school‐based child abuse prevention program. Research on Social Work Practice 1995;5(1):36‐46.
Foshee 1996 {published data only}
    1. Foshee VA, Linder GF, Bauman KE, Langwick SA, Arriaga XB, Heath JL, et al. The Safe Dates Project: theoretical basis, evaluation design, and selected baseline findings. American Journal of Preventive Medicine 1996;12(5 Suppl):39‐47. - PubMed
Foshee 1998 {published data only}
    1. Foshee VA, Bauman KE, Arriaga XB, Helms RW, Koch GG, Linder GF. An evaluation of Safe Dates, an adolescent dating violence prevention program. American Journal of Public Health 1998;88(1):45‐50. - PMC - PubMed
Garbarino 1987 {published data only}
    1. Garbarino J. Children's response to a sexual abuse prevention program: a study of the Spiderman comic. Child Abuse & Neglect 1987;11(1):143‐8. - PubMed
Herman 1987 {published data only}
    1. Herman P. Evaluation of a Sexual Abuse Curriculum/Prevention Program [PhD thesis]. Washington, United States: Washington State University, 1987.
Jacobs 1995 {published data only}
    1. Jacobs JE, Hashima PY, Kenning M. Children's perceptions of the risk of sexual abuse. Child Abuse & Neglect 1995;19(12):1443‐56. - PubMed
Johnson 1994 {published data only}
    1. Johnson SG. The Effectiveness and Emotional Consequences of a School‐Based Child Sexual Abuse Prevention Program [MSCP thesis]. Sydney, Australia: Macquarie University, 1994.
Johnson 2006 {published data only}
    1. Johnson BM, Miltenberger RG, Knudson P, Egemo‐Helm K, Kelso P, Jostad C, et al. A preliminary evaluation of two behavioural skills training procedures for teaching abduction‐prevention skills to schoolchildren. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis 2006;39(1):25‐34. - PMC - PubMed
Kernsmith 2011 {published data only}
    1. Kernsmith PD, Hernandez‐Jozefowicz DM. A gender‐sensitive peer education program for sexual assault prevention in the schools. Children & Schools 2011;33(3):146‐57.
Kindt 1995 {published data only}
    1. Kindt MT. Evaluation of an Adolescent Sexual Abuse Prevention Program [PhD Thesis]. Ohio, United States: Bowling Green State University, 1995.
Kolko 1987 {published data only}
    1. Kolko DJ, Moser JT, Litz J, Hughes J. Promoting awareness and prevention of child sexual victimization using the Red Flag/Green Flag program: an evaluation with follow‐up. Journal of Family Violence 1987;2(1):11‐35.
MacIntyre 1999a {published data only}
    1. MacIntyre D, Carr A. Evaluation of the effectiveness of the stay safe primary prevention programme for child sexual abuse. Child Abuse & Neglect 1999;23(12):1307‐25. - PubMed
MacIntyre 1999b {published data only}
    1. MacIntyre D, Carr A. Helping children to the other side of silence: a study of the impact of the stay safe programme on Irish children's disclosures of sexual victimization. Child Abuse & Neglect 1999;23(12):1327‐40. - PubMed
Madak 1992 {published data only}
    1. Madak PR, Berg DH. The prevention of sexual abuse: an evaluation of "Talking About Touching". Canadian Journal of Counselling 1992;26(1):29‐40.
Martin 2012 {published data only}
    1. Martin AF, Baz M, Vicario‐Molina I, Martinez Alvarez JL, Fuertes AF, Gonzalez RJ. Assessment of a sexual coercion prevention program for adolescents. Spanish Journal of Psychology 2012;15(2):560‐70. - PubMed
Michaelson 2001 {published data only}
    1. Michaelson R. Development, Evaluation and Revision of the School‐Based Child Sexual Abuse Prevention Program (CSAPP Project) [PhD Thesis]. St Alban's, Australia: Victoria University of Technology, 2001.
Miller 2011 {published data only}
    1. Miller E, McCauley H, Virata MC, Decker M, Trancredi D, Moideen F, et al. Coaching boys into men: preliminary success of a sexual violence prevention program. Journal of Adolescent Health 2011;48(2 Suppl):S85‐6. - PubMed
Miller 2012 {published data only}
    1. Miller E, Tancredi DJ, McCauley HL, Decker MR, Virata MCD, Anderson HA, et al. Coaching boys into men: a cluster‐randomized controlled trial of a dating violence prevention program. Journal of Adolescent Health 2012;51(5):431‐8. - PubMed
Miller 2013 {published data only}
    1. Miller E, Tancredi DJ, McCauley HL, Decker MR, Virata MCD, Anderson HA, et al. One‐year follow‐up of a coach‐delivered dating violence prevention program: a cluster randomized controlled trial. American Journal of Preventive Medicine 2013;45(1):108‐12. - PubMed
Moreno‐Manso 2014 {published data only}
    1. Moreno‐Manso J, Garcia‐Baamonde E, Blazquez‐Alonso M, Pozueco‐Romero JM. Application of a child abuse prevention programme in an educational context. Anales de Psicologia 2014;30(3):1014‐24.
Ogunfowokan 2012 {published data only}
    1. Ogunfowokan AA, Fajemilehin RB. Impact of a school‐based sexual abuse prevention education program on the knowledge and attitude of high school girls. Journal of School Nursing 2012;28(6):459‐68. - PubMed
Pacifici 2001 {published data only}
    1. Pacifici C, Stoolmiller M, Nelson C. Evaluating a prevention program for teenagers on sexual coercion: a differential effectiveness approach. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 2001;69(3):552‐9. - PubMed
Peraino 1990 {published data only}
    1. Peraino JM. Evaluation of a preschool antivictimization prevention program. Journal of Interpersonal Violence 1990;5(4):520‐8.
Pohl 1990 {published data only}
    1. Pohl JD, Hazzard A. Reactions of children, parents, and teachers to child sexual abuse prevention programs. Education 1990;110(3):337‐4.
Smothers 2011 {published data only}
    1. Smothers MK, Smothers DB. A sexual assault primary prevention model with diverse urban youth. Journal of Child Sexual Abuse 2011;20(6):708‐27. - PubMed
Taal 1997 {published data only}
    1. Taal M, Edelaar M. Positive and negative effects of a child sexual abuse prevention program. Child Abuse & Neglect 1997;21(4):399‐410. - PubMed
Taylor 1991 {published data only}
    1. Taylor S. An Evaluative Study of the Child Abuse Research and Education Program [Med Thesis]. Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada: Memorial University of Newfoundland, 1991.
Taylor 2010a {published data only}
    1. Taylor B, Stein N, Burden F. The effects of gender violence/harassment prevention programming in middle schools: a randomized experimental evaluation. Violence and Victims 2010;25(2):202‐23. - PubMed
Taylor 2010b {published data only}
    1. Taylor BG, Stein N, Burden FF. Exploring gender differences in dating violence/harassment prevention programming in middle schools: results from a randomized experiment. Journal of Experimental Criminology 2010;6(4):419‐45.
Telljohann 1997 {published data only}
    1. Telljohann SK, Everett SA, Price JH. Evaluation of a third grade sexual abuse curriculum. Journal of School Health 1997;67(4):149‐53. - PubMed
Tutty 1991 {published data only}
    1. Tutty LM. An Investigation of the Ability of Elementary School‐Aged Children to Learn Child Sexual Abuse Prevention Concepts [PhD thesis]. Alberta, Canada: University of Calgary, 1991.
Tutty 1992 {published data only}
    1. Tutty LM. The ability of elementary school children to learn child sexual abuse prevention concepts. Child Abuse & Neglect 1992;16(3):369‐84. - PubMed
Volpe 1984 {published data only}
    1. Volpe R. A psychoeducational program dealing with child abuse for elementary school children. Child Abuse & Neglect 1984;8(4):511‐7. - PubMed
Warden 1997 {published data only}
    1. Warden D, Moran E, Gillies J, Mays G, MacLeod L. An evaluation of a children's safety training programme. Education Psychology 1997;17(4):433‐48.
Weatherley 2012 {published data only}
    1. Weatherley R, Hajar S, Noralina O, John M, Preusser N, Yong M. Evaluation of a school‐based sexual abuse prevention curriculum in Malaysia. Children and Youth Services Review 2012;34(1):119‐25.
Webb 1997 {published data only}
    1. Webb A. An Evaluation of a School Based Sexual Abuse Prevention Program [MHealSc thesis]. Melbourne, Australia: Victoria University of Technology, 1997.
Weisz 2001 {published data only}
    1. Weisz AN. Evaluating a sexual assault and dating violence prevention program for urban youths. Social Work Research 2001;25(2):89‐102.
Wurtele 1987a {published data only}
    1. Wurtele SK, Marrs SR, Miller‐Perrin CL. Practice makes perfect? The role of participant modeling in sexual abuse prevention programs. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 1987;55(4):599‐602. - PubMed

References to ongoing studies

NCT02181647 {published data only}
    1. NCT02181647. Safe touches: a rigorous evaluation of a sexual abuse prevention program for children. https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT02181647 (accessed 8 February 2015).

Additional references

Adams 1984
    1. Adams A, Fey J. Child sexual abuse: a solution. James Stanfield Co, Inc, Santa Barbara (CA) 1984.
Albers 1991
    1. Albers E. Child sexual abuse programs: recommendation for refinement and study. Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal 1991;8(2):117‐25.
Anderson 1990
    1. Anderson C, Morris B, Robins M. Touch. Illusion Theater, Minneapolis (MN) 1990.
Andrews 2004
    1. Andrews G, Corry J, Slade T, Issakidis C, Swantson H. Comparative quantification of health risks: global and regional burden of disease attributable to selected major risk factors. In: Ezzati M, Lopez AD, Rogersand A, Murray CJL editor(s). Child Sexual Abuse. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2004.
Bandura 1986
    1. Bandura A. Social Foundations of Thought and Action: A Social Cognitive Theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1986.
Barth 2013
    1. Barth J, Bermetz L, Heim E, Trelle S, Tonia T. The current prevalence of child sexual abuse worldwide: a systematic review and meta‐analysis. International Journal of Public Health 2013;58(3):469‐83. - PubMed
Battle 1981
    1. Battle J. Culture‐Free Self‐Esteem Inventories for Children and Adults. Seattle, Washington: Special Child Publications, 1981.
Bensley 1999
    1. Bensley LS, Eenwyk J, Spieker SJ, Schoder J. Self‐reported abuse history and adolescent problem behaviors. I. Antisocial and suicidal behaviors. Journal of Adolescent Health 1999;24(3):163‐72. - PubMed
Berrick 1991
    1. Berrick JD, Gilbert N. With the Best of Intentions: The Child Sexual Abuse Prevention Movement. New York: The Guilford Press, 1991.
Berrick 1992
    1. Berrick JD, Barth RP. Child sexual abuse prevention: research review and recommendations. Social Work Research and Abstracts 1992;28(4):6‐16.
Binder 1987b
    1. Binder RL, McNiel DE. Evaluation of a school‐based sexual abuse prevention program: cognitive and emotional effects. Child Abuse & Neglect 1987;11(4):497‐506. - PubMed
Blumberg 1987
    1. Blumberg EJ. The Effects of Two Sexual Abuse Prevention Training Programs on the Evaluation of Touches [MA Psych thesis]. San Diego: San Diego State University, 1987.
Boden 2007
    1. Boden JM, Horwood LJ, Fergusson DM. Exposure to childhood sexual and physical abuse and subsequent educational achievement outcomes. Child Abuse & Neglect 2007;31(10):1101‐14. - PubMed
Borenstein 2009
    1. Borenstein M, Hedges LV, Higgins JPT, Rothstein HR. Introduction to Meta‐Analysis. Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons, 2009.
Buist 1998
    1. Buist A. Childhood abuse, postpartum depression and parenting difficulties: a literature review of associations. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 1998;32(3):370‐8. - PubMed
Campbell 1963
    1. Campbell DT, Stanley JC. Experimental and Quasi‐Experimental Designs for Research. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning, 1963.
Campbell 2004
    1. Campbell MK, Elbourne DR, Altman DG. CONSORT Statement: extension to cluster randomised trials. BMJ 2004;328:702‐8. - PMC - PubMed
Carroll 1992
    1. Carroll LA, Miltenberger RG. A review and critique of research evaluating child sexual abuse prevention programs. Education and Treatment of Children 1992;15(4):335‐55.
Chadwick 1989
    1. Chadwick MKW. A Comparative Evaluation of Two Sexual Abuse Prevention Programs for Children [PhD thesis]. Irvine, United States: University of California, 1989.
Childhelp 2011
    1. Childhelp. Good Touch Bad Touch™ (GTBT) program. http://bit.ly/1L71F0Q (accessed 15 October 2013).
Church 1988
    1. Church P, Forehand R, Brown C, Holmes T. The prevention of sexual abuse: examination of the effectiveness of a program with kindergarten‐age children. Behaviour Therapy 1988;19(3):429‐35.
Conte 1986
    1. Conte JR, Rosen C, Saperstein L. An analysis of programs to prevent the sexual victimization of children. Journal of Primary Prevention 1986;6(3):141‐55. - PubMed
Cooper 1991
    1. Cooper SJ. New Strategies for Free Children: Child Abuse Prevention for Elementary School Children. Columbus, OH: The National Assault Prevention Center, 1991.
CSPV 2013
    1. Center for the Study and Prevention of Violence. Blueprints for healthy youth development. www.blueprintsprograms.com/ (accessed 15 October 2013).
Daro 1991
    1. Daro DA. Child sexual abuse prevention: separating fact from fiction. Child Abuse & Neglect 1991;15(1‐2):1‐4. - PubMed
Daro 1994
    1. Daro DA. Prevention of child sexual abuse. The Future of Children 1994;4(2):198‐223. - PubMed
Davis 2000
    1. Davis MK, Gidycz CA. Child sexual abuse prevention programs: a meta‐analysis. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology 2000;29(2):257‐65. - PubMed
Duane 2002
    1. Duane Y, Carr A. Prevention: what works with children and adolescents. In: Carr A editor(s). Prevention of Child Sexual Abuse. New York: Brunner‐Routledge, 2002:181‐204.
Dunn 1981
    1. Dunn LM, Dunn LM. Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test‐Revised. Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service, 1981.
Egger 1997
    1. Egger M, Davey‐Smith G, Schneider M, Minder C. Bias in meta‐analysis detected by a simple, graphical test. BMJ 1997;315(7109):629‐34. - PMC - PubMed
Fang 2012
    1. Fang X, Brown DS, Florence CS, Mercy JA. The economic burden of child maltreatment in the United States and implications for prevention. Child Abuse & Neglect 2012;36(2):156‐65. - PMC - PubMed
Fellmeth 2013
    1. Fellmeth GLT, Heffernan C, Nurse J, Habibula S, Sethi D. Educational and skills‐based interventions for preventing relationship and dating violence in adolescents and young adults. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2013, Issue 6. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD004534.pub3] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Fergusson 1996
    1. Fergusson DM, Lynskey MT, Horwood LJ. Childhood sexual abuse and psychiatric disorder in young adulthood: I. Prevalence of sexual abuse and factors associated with sexual abuse. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 1996;35(10):1355‐64. - PubMed
Finkelhor 1986
    1. Finkelhor D, Barron L. Risk factors for child sexual abuse. Journal of Interpersonal Violence 1986;1(1):43‐71.
Finkelhor 1990
    1. Finkelhor D, Hotaling G, Lewis IA, Smith C. Sexual abuse in a national survey of adult men and women: prevalence, characteristics, and risk factors. Child Abuse & Neglect 1990;14(1):19‐28. - PubMed
Finkelhor 1992
    1. Finkelhor D, Strapko N. Sexual abuse prevention education: a review of evaluation studies. In: Willis DJ, Holden EW, Rosenberg M editor(s). Prevention of Child Maltreatment: Developmental and Ecological Perspectives. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 1992:150‐67.
Finkelhor 1993
    1. Finkelhor D. Epidemiological factors in the clinical identification of child sexual abuse. Child Abuse & Neglect 1993;17(1):67‐70. - PubMed
Finkelhor 1995a
    1. Finkelhor D, Asidigian N, Dziuba‐Leatherman J. Victimization prevention programs for children: a follow‐up. American Journal of Public Health 1995;85(12):1684‐9. - PMC - PubMed
Finkelhor 1995b
    1. Finkelhor D, Asdigian N, Dziuba‐Leatherman J. The effectiveness of victimization prevention instruction: an evaluation of children's responses to actual threats and assaults. Child Abuse & Neglect 1995;19(2):141‐53. - PubMed
Finkelhor 1995c
    1. Finkelhor D, Dziuba‐Leatherman J. Victimization prevention programs: a national survey of children's exposure and reactions. Child Abuse & Neglect 1995;19(2):129‐39. - PubMed
Finkelhor 2007
    1. Finkelhor D. Prevention of sexual abuse through educational programs directed toward children. Pediatrics 2007;129(3):640‐5. - PubMed
Finkelhor 2008
    1. Finkelhor D. Childhood Victimization: Violence, Crime, and Abuse in the Lives of Young People. New York: Oxford University Press, 2008.
Flandreau‐West 1984
    1. Flandreau‐West P. Protective Behaviors: Anti‐Victim Training for Children, Adolescents and Adults. Madison, WI: Protective Behaviors Inc, 1984.
Fleming 1999
    1. Fleming J, Mullen PE, Sibthorpe B, Bammer G. The long‐term impact of childhood sexual abuse in Australian women. Child Abuse & Neglect 1999;23(2):145‐59. - PubMed
Fryer 1987b
    1. Fryer Jr GE, Kraizer SK, Miyoshi T. Measuring children's retention of skills to resist stranger abduction: use of the simulation technique. Child Abuse & Neglect 1987;11(2):181‐5. - PubMed
Gibson 2000
    1. Gibson LE, Leitenberg H. Child sexual abuse prevention programs: do they decrease the occurrence of child sexual abuse?. Child Abuse & Neglect 2000;24(9):1115‐25. - PubMed
Girard 1985
    1. Girard LW. Who is a Stranger and What Should I Do?. Morton Grove, IL: Albert Whitman & Company, 1985.
Grimm 1994
    1. Grimm C, Haseltine B, Schwandt P. Red Flag/Green Flag People II: A Sexual Abuse Prevention Program for Older Elementary Age Children. Fargo, ND: Rape and Abuse Crisis Center, 1994.
Harter 1982
    1. Harter S. Perceived Competence Scale for Children. Child Development 1982;53(1):87‐97. - PubMed
Heidotting 1994
    1. Heidotting T, Keiffer S, Soled SW. A quantitative synthesis of child sexual abuse prevention programs. Paper presented at The American Educational Research Association, New Orleans. 1994.
Higgins 2002
    1. Higgins JPT, Thompson SG. Quantifying heterogeneity in a meta‐analysis. Statistics in Medicine 2002;21(11):1539‐58. - PubMed
Higgins 2011
    1. Higgins JPT, Green S. Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions Version 5.1.0 [updated March 2011]. The Cochrane Collaboration, 2011. Available from www.cochrane‐handbook.org.
Holmes 1998
    1. Holmes WD, Slap GB. Sexual abuse of boys: definition, prevalence, correlates, sequelae, and management. JAMA 1998;280(21):1855‐62. - PubMed
Hébert 2004
    1. Hébert M, Tourigny M. Child sexual abuse prevention: a review of evaluative studies and recommendations for program development. Advances in Psychology Research 2004;32:111‐43.
Illusion Theater Company 1984
    1. Illusion Theater Company, Media Ventures Inc. Touch. MTI Teleprograms, Deerfield, IL 1984.
Irish 2010
    1. Irish L, Kobayashi I, Delahanty DL. Long‐term physical health consequences of childhood sexual abuse: a meta‐analytic review. Journal of Pediatric Psychology 2010;35(5):450‐61. - PMC - PubMed
Ji 2013
    1. Ji K, Finkelhor D, Dunne M. Child sexual abuse in China: a meta‐analysis of 27 studies. Child Abuse & Neglect 2013;37(9):613‐22. - PubMed
Kenny 2008
    1. Kenny MC, Capri V, Thakkar‐Kolar RR, Ryan EE, Runyon MK. Child sexual abuse: from prevention to self‐protection. Child Abuse Review 2008;17(1):36‐54.
Ko 2001
    1. Ko SF, Cosden MA. Do elementary school‐based child abuse prevention programs work? A high school follow‐up. Psychology in the Schools 2001;38(1):57‐66.
Kolko 1988
    1. Kolko DJ. Educational programs to promote awareness and prevention of child sexual victimization: a review and methodological critique. Clinical Psychology Review 1988;8(2):195‐209.
Kraizer 1981
    1. Kraizer SK. Children Need to Know Personal Training Program. New York: Health Education Systems Inc, 1981.
Kraizer 1989
    1. Kraizer S, Witte SS, Fryer GE. Child sexual abuse prevention programs: what makes them effective in protecting children?. Children Today 1989;18(5):23‐7. - PubMed
Leclerc 2011
    1. Leclerc B, Wortley R, Smallbone S. Victim resistance in child sexual abuse: a look into the efficacy of self‐protection strategies based on the offender's experience. Journal of Interpersonal Violence 2011;26(9):1868‐83. - PubMed
London 2005
    1. London K, Bruck M, Ceci SJ, Shuman DW. Disclosure of child sexual abuse: what does the research tell us about the ways that children tell?. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law 2005;11(1):194‐226.
Lopez 1997
    1. Lopez F, DelCampo A. Prevention of child sexual abuse [Prevención de abusos sexuales a menores]. Ministerio de Trabajo y Asuntos Sociales y Amarú Ediciones, Madrid 1997.
Macdonald 2001
    1. Macdonald G. Effective Interventions for Child Abuse and Neglect. Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons, 2001.
MacIntyre 2000
    1. MacIntyre D, Carr A. Prevention of child sexual abuse: implications of programme evaluation research. Child Abuse Review 2000;9(3):183‐99.
MacMillan 1994
    1. MacMillan HL, MacMillan JH, Offord DR, Griffith L, MacMillan A. Primary prevention of child sexual abuse: a critical review. Part II. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 1994;35(5):857‐76. - PubMed
MacMillan 2013
    1. MacMillan HL, Wathen CN. Child sexual abuse of girls. In: Garcia‐Moreno C, Riecher‐Rӧssler A editor(s). Violence Against Women and Mental Health. Basel, Switzerland: Karger, 2013:96‐106.
Marvel Comics 1984
    1. Marvel Comics. Spiderman and power pack. National Committee for the Prevention of Child Abuse. P.O. Box 94283, Chicago, IL 60690, 1984.
MHAWC 1984
    1. Mental Health Association of Westchester County. Good Touches/Bad Touches: A Child Sexual Abuse Prevention Program Part II, for Fourth Through Sixth Grades, Revised Edition. White Plains: Mental Health Association of Westchester County, Inc, 1984.
Mikton 2009
    1. Mikton C, Butchart A. Child maltreatment prevention: a systematic review of reviews. Bulletin of the World Health Organization 2009;87(5):353‐61. - PMC - PubMed
Miller‐Perrin 1986
    1. Miller‐Perrin C, Wurtele S. Harmful effects of school‐based sexual abuse prevention programs? Reassure the parents. Paper presented at the meeting of the American Psychological Association, Washington, DC. Washington, DC, 1986.
Miller‐Perrin 1990
    1. Miller‐Perrin CL, Wurtele SK, Kondrick PA. Sexually abused and nonabused children's conceptions of personal body safety. Child Abuse & Neglect 1990;14(1):99‐112. - PubMed
Mytton 2006
    1. Mytton J, DiGuiseppi C, Gough D, Taylor R, Logan S. School‐based secondary prevention programmes for preventing violence. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2006, Issue 3. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD004606.pub2] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
National Film Board of Canada 1985
    1. National Film Board of Canada. Feeling yes, feeling no. Perennial Education, Evanston, IL 1985.
NCMEC 1999
    1. National Center for Missing and Exploited Children. Guidelines for programs to reduce child victimization: a resource for communities when choosing a program to teach personal safety to children. www.safechild.org/PDF/Guidelines%20for%20Chid%20Safety.pdf (accessed 15 October 2013).
Nowicki 1973
    1. Nowicki S, Strickland BR. A locus of control scale for children. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 1973;40(1):148‐54. - PubMed
NSW Department of School Education 1998
    1. New South Wales Department of School Education. Child protection education: curriculum materials to support teaching and learning in personal development, health and physical education. www.curriculumsupport.education.nsw.gov.au/primary/pdhpe/safe/cpe.htm (accessed 15 October 2013).
O'Donohue 1992
    1. O'Donohue W, Geer JH, Elliott A. The primary prevention of child sexual abuse. In: O'Donohue WM, Geer JH editor(s). The Sexual Abuse of Children: Theory and Research. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1992:477‐517.
Orpinas 1995
    1. Orpinas P, Kelde RS. Students for Peace Project: Second Student Evaluation. Houston, TX: University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, School of Public Health, 1995.
Pereda 2009
    1. Pereda N, Guilera G, Forns M, Gómez‐Benito J. The international epidemiology of child sexual abuse: a continuation of Finkelhor (1994). Child Abuse & Neglect 2009;33(6):331‐42. - PubMed
Perkins 1999
    1. Perkins DF, Luster T. The relationship between sexual abuse and purging: findings from community‐wide surveys of female adolescents. Child Abuse & Neglect 1999;23(4):371‐82. - PubMed
Putnam 2003
    1. Putnam FW. Ten‐year research update review: child sexual abuse. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 2003;42(3):269–78. - PubMed
RAND Corporation 2013
    1. RAND Corporation. Promising practices network on children, families and communities. www.promisingpractices.net/ (accessed 15 October 2013).
Rape and Abuse Crisis Center 2008
    1. Rape and Abuse Crisis Center of Fargo‐Moorhead. Red Flag/Green Flag People: A Personal Safety Program for Early Elementary Age Children. Fargo, ND: Rape and Abuse Crisis Center of Fargo–Moorhead, 2008.
Raven 1960
    1. Raven JC. Guide to the Standard Progressive Matrices. London: Lewis, 1960.
Reppucci 1991
    1. Reppucci ND, Herman J. Sexuality education and child sexual abuse prevention programs in the schools. Review of Research in Education 1991;17(1):127‐66.
Reppucci 2005
    1. Reppucci DN, Haugaard JJ, Antonishak J. Is there empirical evidence to support the effectiveness of child sexual abuse prevention programs?. In: Loeske DR, Gelles RJ, Cavanaugh MM editor(s). Current Controversies in Family Violence. 2nd Edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2005:271‐84.
RevMan 2012 [Computer program]
    1. The Nordic Cochrane Centre, The Cochrane Collaboration. Review Manager (RevMan). Version 5.2. Copenhagen: The Nordic Cochrane Centre, The Cochrane Collaboration, 2012.
Reynolds 1985
    1. Reynolds CR, Richmond BO. Revised Children's Manifest Anxiety Scale (RCMAS) Manual. Los Angeles, CA: Western Psychological Services, 1985.
Rispens 1997
    1. Rispens J, Aleman A, Goudena PP. Prevention of child sexual abuse victimization: a meta‐analysis of school programs. Child Abuse & Neglect 1997;21(10):975‐87. - PubMed
Roberts 1999
    1. Roberts JA, Miltenberger RG. Emerging issues in the research on child sexual abuse prevention. Education and Treatment of Children 1999;22(1):84‐102.
Roosa 1999
    1. Roosa MW, Reinholtz C, Angelini PJ. The relation of child sexual abuse and depression in young women: comparisons across four ethnic groups. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology 1999;27(1):65‐76. - PubMed
Rosenberg 1991
    1. Rosenberg ML, Mercy JA. Violence in America: A Public Health Approach. New York: Oxford University Press, 1991.
Sanderson 2004
    1. Sanderson J. Child‐focused sexual abuse prevention programs: how effective are they in preventing child abuse?. Crime and Misconduct Commission Research and Issues Paper Series 2004;5(1):1‐8.
Schochet 2008
    1. Schochet PZ. Statistical power for random assignment evaluations of education programs. Journal of Educational and Behavioral Statistics 2008;33(1):62‐87.
Schwab‐Stone 1995
    1. Schwab‐Stone ME, Ayers TS, Kasprow W, Voyce C, Barone C, Shriver T, et al. No safe haven: a study of violence exposure in an urban community. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 1995;34(10):1343‐52. - PubMed
Shulz 2010
    1. Schulz KF, Altman DG, Moher D, for the CONSORT Group. CONSORT 2010 statement: updated guidelines for reporting parallel group randomised trials. BMJ 2010;340:332. - PubMed
Smallbone 2008
    1. Smallbone S, Marshall WL, Wortley R. Preventing Child Sexual Abuse: Evidence, Policy and Practice. Portland, OR: Willan Publishing, 2008.
Solomon 1949
    1. Solomon RL. An extension of control group design. Psychological Bulletin 1949;46(2):137‐50. - PubMed
Spak 1998
    1. Spak L, Spak F, Allebeck P. Sexual abuse and alcoholism in a female population. Addiction 1998;93(9):1365‐73. - PubMed
Speilberger 1966
    1. Speilberger CD. Anxiety and Behavior. New York: Academic Press, 1966.
Spielberger 1973
    1. Spielberger C. State‐Trait Anxiety Inventory for Children: Preliminary Manual. Palo‐Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologist Press, 1973.
Stoltenborgh 2011
    1. Stoltenborgh M, Ijzendoorn MH, Euser EM, Bakermans‐Kranenburg MJ. A global perspective on child sexual abuse: meta‐analysis of prevalence around the world. Child Maltreatment 2011;16(2):79‐101. - PubMed
The World Bank 2013
    1. The World Bank. Data: countries and economies. data.worldbank.org/country (accessed 8 February 2015).
Topping 2009
    1. Topping KJ, Barron IG. School‐based child sexual abuse prevention programs: a review of effectiveness. Review of Educational Research 2009;79(1):431‐63.
Trickett 1997
    1. Trickett PK, Horowitz L, Reiffman A, Putnam FW. Characteristics of sexual abuse trauma and the prediction of developmental outcomes. In: Cicchetti D, Toth SL editor(s). Rochester Symposium on Developmental Psychopathology. Volume VIII: The Effects of Trauma on the Developmental Process. Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press, 1997:289‐314.
Trickett 2006
    1. Trickett PK. Defining child sexual abuse. In: Feerick MM, Knutson JF, Trickett PK, Flanzer SM editor(s). Child Abuse and Neglect: Definitions, Classifications, and a Framework for Research. Baltimore, MD: Paul H Brookes Publishing Co, 2006:129‐49.
Turner 2011
    1. Turner HA, Finkelhor D, Hamby SL, Shattuck A, Ormrod RK. Specifying type and location of peer victimization in a national sample of children and youth. Journal of Youth and Adolescence 2011;40(8):1052‐67. - PubMed
Tutty 1993
    1. Tutty LM. Parent's perceptions of their child's knowledge of sexual abuse prevention concepts. Journal of Child Sexual Abuse 1993;2(1):83‐103.
Tutty 1995
    1. Tutty L. The revised Children’s Knowledge of Abuse Questionnaire: development of a measure of children’s understanding of sexual abuse prevention concepts. Social Work Research 1995;19(2):112–20.
Tutty 2000
    1. Tutty LM. What children learn from sexual abuse prevention programs: difficult concepts and developmental issues. Research on Social Work Practice 2000;10(3):275‐300.
United Nations 1989
    1. United Nations. UN convention on the rights of the child. www.unicef.org/crc (accessed 8 April 2014).
Valentine 2004
    1. Valentine JC, DuBois DL, Cooper H. The relation between self‐beliefs and academic achievement: a meta‐analytic review. Educational Psychologist 2004;39(2):111‐33.
Vygotsky 1986
    1. Vygotsky L. Thought and Language. Cambridge, MA: Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press, 1986.
Walsh 2013
    1. Walsh K, Berthelsen D, Nicholson JM, Brandon L, Stevens J, Rachele JN. Child sexual abuse prevention education: a review of school policy and curriculum provision in Australia. Oxford Review of Education 2013;39(5):649–80.
Westcott 1999
    1. Westcott H, Jones D. Annotation: the abuse of disabled children. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines 1999;40(4):497–506. - PubMed
WHO 1999
    1. World Health Organization. Report of the consultation on child abuse prevention. Geneva, World Health Organization,1999 (document WHO/HSC/PVI/99.1) 1999.
Widom 1999
    1. Widom CS. Posttraumatic stress disorder in abused and neglected children grown up. American Journal of Psychiatry 1999;156(8):1223‐9. - PubMed
Williams 1980
    1. Williams J. Red Flag/Green Flag People Coloring Book. Fargo, ND: Rape and Abuse Crisis Center, 1980.
Wurtele 1986a
    1. Wurtele SK. Teaching Young Children Personal Body Safety: The Behavioral Skills Training Program. Colorado Springs, CO: Wurtele, SK, 1986.
Wurtele 1986b
    1. Wurtele SK, Miller‐Perrin CL. An evaluation of side effects associated with participation in a child sexual abuse prevention program. Journal of School Health 1986;57(6):228‐31. - PubMed
Wurtele 1987b
    1. Wurtele SK. School‐based sexual abuse prevention programs: a review. Child Abuse & Neglect 1987;11(4):483‐95. - PubMed
Wurtele 1989
    1. Wurtele SK, Kast LC, Miller‐Perrin CL, Kondrick PA. Comparison of programs for teaching personal safety skills to preschoolers. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 1989;57(4):505‐11. - PubMed
Wurtele 1990
    1. Wurtele SK. Teaching personal safety skills to four‐year‐old children: a behavioral approach. Behavior Therapy 1990;21(1):25‐32.
Wurtele 1992
    1. Wurtele SK, Gillispie EI, Currier LL, Franklin CF. A comparison of teachers vs. parents as instructors of a personal safety program for preschoolers. Child Abuse & Neglect 1992;16(1):127‐37. - PubMed
Wurtele 1998
    1. Wurtele SK, Hughes JW, Owens JS. An examination of the reliability of the "what if" situations test: a brief report. Journal of Child Sexual Abuse 1998;7(1):41‐52.
Wurtele 2002
    1. Wurtele SK. School‐based child sexual abuse prevention. In: Schewe PA editor(s). Preventing Violence in Relationships: Interventions Across the Life Span. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 2002:9‐25.
Wurtele 2007
    1. Wurtele SK. Body Safety Training Workbook. Colorado Springs, CO: Sandy K Wurtele, 2007.
Wurtele 2009
    1. Wurtele SK. Preventing sexual abuse of children in the twenty‐first century: preparing for challenges and opportunities. Journal of Child Sexual Abuse 2009;18(1):1‐18. - PubMed
Wurtele 2010
    1. Wurtele S, Kenny MC. Primary prevention of child sexual abuse: child‐ and parent‐focused approaches. The Prevention of Sexual Violence: A Practitioner's Sourcebook. Holyoake, MA: NEARI Press, 2010:107‐19.
Wyatt 1999
    1. Wyatt GE, Loeb TB, Solis B, Carmona JV. The prevalence and circumstances of child sexual abuse: changes across a decade. Child Abuse & Neglect 1999;23(1):45‐60. - PubMed

References to other published versions of this review

Zwi 2003
    1. Zwi KJ, Woolfenden SR, Wheeler DM, O'Brien TA, Tait P, Williams KW. School‐based education programmes for the prevention of child sexual abuse. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2003, Issue 4. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD004380] - DOI - PubMed
Zwi 2007
    1. Zwi K, Woolfenden S, Wheeler DM, O'Brien T, Tait P, Williams KJ. School‐based education programmes for the prevention of child sexual abuse. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2007, Issue 3. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD004380.pub2] - DOI - PubMed

Publication types