Fetal endocrine and metabolic adaptations to hypoxia: the role of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis

Abstract

In utero, hypoxia is a significant yet common stress that perturbs homeostasis and can occur due to preeclampsia, preterm labor, maternal smoking, heart or lung disease, obesity, and high altitude. The fetus has the extraordinary capacity to respond to stress during development. This is mediated in part by the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and more recently explored changes in perirenal adipose tissue (PAT) in response to hypoxia. Obvious ethical considerations limit studies of the human fetus, and fetal studies in the rodent model are limited due to size considerations and major differences in developmental landmarks. The sheep is a common model that has been used extensively to study the effects of both acute and chronic hypoxia on fetal development. In response to high-altitude-induced, moderate long-term hypoxia (LTH), both the HPA axis and PAT adapt to preserve normal fetal growth and development while allowing for responses to acute stress. Although these adaptations appear beneficial during fetal development, they may become deleterious postnatally and into adulthood. The goal of this review is to examine the role of the HPA axis in the convergence of endocrine and metabolic adaptive responses to hypoxia in the fetus.

Keywords: adipose; cortisol; fetus; hypoxia.

Fig. 1.

Adaptive responses of the fetal hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis to hypoxia. The diagram summarizes endocrine and metabolic adaptations to both acute (AH) and long-term hypoxia (LTH). The solid-line arrows illustrate stimulatory effects, whereas the dashed-line arrows denote inhibitory influences. CRH, corticotropin-releasing hormone; AVP, arginine vasopressin.