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Meta-Analysis
. 2015 Aug 7;2015(8):CD011834.
doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD011834.

Effects of total fat intake on body weight

Lee Hooper  1 , Asmaa Abdelhamid, Diane Bunn, Tracey Brown, Carolyn D Summerbell, C Murray Skeaff
Affiliations
Meta-Analysis

Effects of total fat intake on body weight

Lee Hooper et al. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. .

Abstract

Background: In order to prevent overweight and obesity in the general population we need to understand the relationship between the proportion of energy from fat and resulting weight and body fatness in the general population.

Objectives: To assess the effects of proportion of energy intake from fat on measures of weight and body fatness (including obesity, waist circumference and body mass index) in people not aiming to lose weight, using all appropriate randomised controlled trials (RCTs) and cohort studies in adults, children and young people

Search methods: We searched CENTRAL to March 2014 and MEDLINE, EMBASE and CINAHL to November 2014. We did not limit the search by language. We also checked the references of relevant reviews.

Selection criteria: Trials fulfilled the following criteria: 1) randomised intervention trial, 2) included children (aged ≥ 24 months), young people or adults, 3) randomised to a lower fat versus usual or moderate fat diet, without the intention to reduce weight in any participants, 4) not multifactorial and 5) assessed a measure of weight or body fatness after at least six months. We also included cohort studies in children, young people and adults that assessed the proportion of energy from fat at baseline and assessed the relationship with body weight or fatness after at least one year. We duplicated inclusion decisions and resolved disagreement by discussion or referral to a third party.

Data collection and analysis: We extracted data on the population, intervention, control and outcome measures in duplicate. We extracted measures of weight and body fatness independently in duplicate at all available time points. We performed random-effects meta-analyses, meta-regression, subgrouping, sensitivity and funnel plot analyses.

Main results: We included 32 RCTs (approximately 54,000 participants) and 30 sets of analyses of 25 cohorts. There is consistent evidence from RCTs in adults of a small weight-reducing effect of eating a smaller proportion of energy from fat; this was seen in almost all included studies and was highly resistant to sensitivity analyses. The effect of eating less fat (compared with usual diet) is a mean weight reduction of 1.5 kg (95% confidence interval (CI) -2.0 to -1.1 kg), but greater weight loss results from greater fat reductions. The size of the effect on weight does not alter over time and is mirrored by reductions in body mass index (BMI) (-0.5 kg/m(2), 95% CI -0.7 to -0.3) and waist circumference (-0.3 cm, 95% CI -0.6 to -0.02). Included cohort studies in children and adults most often do not suggest any relationship between total fat intake and later measures of weight, body fatness or change in body fatness. However, there was a suggestion that lower fat intake was associated with smaller increases in weight in middle-aged but not elderly adults, and in change in BMI in the highest validity child cohort.

Authors' conclusions: Trials where participants were randomised to a lower fat intake versus usual or moderate fat intake, but with no intention to reduce weight, showed a consistent, stable but small effect of low fat intake on body fatness: slightly lower weight, BMI and waist circumference compared with controls. Greater fat reduction and lower baseline fat intake were both associated with greater reductions in weight. This effect of reducing total fat was not consistently reflected in cohort studies assessing the relationship between total fat intake and later measures of body fatness or change in body fatness in studies of children, young people or adults.

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Conflict of interest statement

AA: none known.

TB: none known.

DB: none known.

LH: the World Health Organization (WHO) provided funding to the University of East Anglia towards the cost of carrying out the update of this systematic review. LH is a member of the WHO NUGAG subgroup on diet and health and received funding from WHO to cover expenses associated with attendance at meetings of the NUGAG subgroup on diet and health.

CMS: none known

CDS: none known.

Figures

1
1
Study flow diagram for this systematic review (update searches run November 2014).
2
2
'Risk of bias' summary: review authors' judgements about each methodological quality item for each included adult and child RCT comparison.
3
3
Forest plot of comparison: 1 Fat reduction versus usual fat diet, adult RCTs, outcome: 1.1 Weight, kg.
4
4
Forest plot of comparison: 1 Fat reduction versus usual fat diet, adult RCTs, outcome: 1.2 BMI, kg/m2.
5
5
Funnel plot of comparison: 1 Fat reduction versus usual fat diet, outcome: 1.1 Weight, kg.
1.1
1.1. Analysis
Comparison 1 Fat reduction versus usual fat diet, adult RCTs, Outcome 1 Weight, kg.
1.2
1.2. Analysis
Comparison 1 Fat reduction versus usual fat diet, adult RCTs, Outcome 2 BMI, kg/m2.
1.3
1.3. Analysis
Comparison 1 Fat reduction versus usual fat diet, adult RCTs, Outcome 3 Waist circumference, cm.
1.4
1.4. Analysis
Comparison 1 Fat reduction versus usual fat diet, adult RCTs, Outcome 4 LDL cholesterol, mmol/L.
1.5
1.5. Analysis
Comparison 1 Fat reduction versus usual fat diet, adult RCTs, Outcome 5 HDL cholesterol, mmol/L.
1.6
1.6. Analysis
Comparison 1 Fat reduction versus usual fat diet, adult RCTs, Outcome 6 Total cholesterol, mmol/L.
1.7
1.7. Analysis
Comparison 1 Fat reduction versus usual fat diet, adult RCTs, Outcome 7 Triglycerides, mmol/L.
1.8
1.8. Analysis
Comparison 1 Fat reduction versus usual fat diet, adult RCTs, Outcome 8 Total cholesterol/HDL.
1.9
1.9. Analysis
Comparison 1 Fat reduction versus usual fat diet, adult RCTs, Outcome 9 Systolic blood pressure, mmHg.
1.10
1.10. Analysis
Comparison 1 Fat reduction versus usual fat diet, adult RCTs, Outcome 10 Diastolic blood pressure, mmHg.
2.1
2.1. Analysis
Comparison 2 Fat reduction versus usual fat diet, adult RCTs ‐ subgrouping, Outcome 1 Weight ‐ subgrouped by duration of advice.
2.2
2.2. Analysis
Comparison 2 Fat reduction versus usual fat diet, adult RCTs ‐ subgrouping, Outcome 2 Weight, subgrouped by control group fat intake.
2.3
2.3. Analysis
Comparison 2 Fat reduction versus usual fat diet, adult RCTs ‐ subgrouping, Outcome 3 Weight, subgrouped by sex.
2.4
2.4. Analysis
Comparison 2 Fat reduction versus usual fat diet, adult RCTs ‐ subgrouping, Outcome 4 Weight, subgrouped by year of first publication of results.
2.5
2.5. Analysis
Comparison 2 Fat reduction versus usual fat diet, adult RCTs ‐ subgrouping, Outcome 5 Weight, subgrouped by difference in %E from fat between control and reduced fat groups.
2.6
2.6. Analysis
Comparison 2 Fat reduction versus usual fat diet, adult RCTs ‐ subgrouping, Outcome 6 Weight ‐ subgrouped by advice vs provided.
2.7
2.7. Analysis
Comparison 2 Fat reduction versus usual fat diet, adult RCTs ‐ subgrouping, Outcome 7 Weight subgrouped by fat goals.
2.8
2.8. Analysis
Comparison 2 Fat reduction versus usual fat diet, adult RCTs ‐ subgrouping, Outcome 8 Weight, kg subgrouped of above below 30%E from fat.
2.9
2.9. Analysis
Comparison 2 Fat reduction versus usual fat diet, adult RCTs ‐ subgrouping, Outcome 9 Weight, kg subgrouped by BMI baseline.
2.10
2.10. Analysis
Comparison 2 Fat reduction versus usual fat diet, adult RCTs ‐ subgrouping, Outcome 10 Weight, kg subgrouped by healthy vs patient.
2.11
2.11. Analysis
Comparison 2 Fat reduction versus usual fat diet, adult RCTs ‐ subgrouping, Outcome 11 Weight, kg subgrouped by energy reduction in int group.
3.1
3.1. Analysis
Comparison 3 Fat reduction versus usual fat diet, adult RCTs ‐ sensitivity analyses, Outcome 1 Weight, kg ‐ removing studies with more attention to low fat arms.
3.2
3.2. Analysis
Comparison 3 Fat reduction versus usual fat diet, adult RCTs ‐ sensitivity analyses, Outcome 2 Weight, kg ‐ removing studies with dietary interventions other than fat.
3.3
3.3. Analysis
Comparison 3 Fat reduction versus usual fat diet, adult RCTs ‐ sensitivity analyses, Outcome 3 Weight, kg ‐ fixed‐effect analysis.
3.4
3.4. Analysis
Comparison 3 Fat reduction versus usual fat diet, adult RCTs ‐ sensitivity analyses, Outcome 4 Weight, kg ‐ removing WHI.
3.5
3.5. Analysis
Comparison 3 Fat reduction versus usual fat diet, adult RCTs ‐ sensitivity analyses, Outcome 5 Weight, kg ‐ removing studies without good allocation concealment.
4.1
4.1. Analysis
Comparison 4 Fat reduction versus usual fat, child RCTs, Outcome 1 BMI, kg/m2 ‐ in child RCTs.
See this image and copyright information in PMC

References

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DEER 1998 no exercise men {published data only (unpublished sought but not used)}
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Diet and Hormone Study 2003 {published data only (unpublished sought but not used)}
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Veterans Dermatology 1994 {published and unpublished data}
    1. Black HS, Herd JA, Goldberg LH, Wolf‐JE J, Thornby JI, Rosen T, et al. Effect of a low‐fat diet on the incidence of actinic keratosis. New England Journal of Medicine 1994;330(18):1272‐5. - PubMed
    1. Black HS, Thornby JI, Wolf‐JE J, Goldberg LH, Herd JA, Rosen T, et al. Evidence that a low‐fat diet reduces the occurrence of non‐melanoma skin cancer. International Journal of Cancer 1995;62(2):165‐9. - PubMed
    1. Jaax S, Scott LW, Wolf‐JE J, Thornby JI, Black HS. General guidelines for a low‐fat diet effective in the management and prevention of nonmelanoma skin cancer. Nutrition and Cancer 1997;27(2):150‐6. - PubMed
VYRONAS 2009 {published data only}
    1. Mihas C, Mariolis A, Manios Y, Naska A, Arapaki A, Mariolis‐Sapsakos T, et al. Evaluation of a nutrition intervention in adolescents of an urban area in Greece: short‐ and long‐term effects of the VYRONAS study. Public Health Nutrition 2010;13(5):712‐9. [DOI: 10.1017/S1368980009991625] - DOI - PubMed
WHEL 2007 {published data only}
    1. Bardwell WA, Profant J, Casden DR, Dimsdale JE, Ancoli‐Israel S, Natarajan L, et al. The relative importance of specific risk factors for insomnia in women treated for early‐stage breast cancer. Psycho‐Oncology 2008;17(1):9‐18. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Caan BJ, Flatt SW, Rock CL, Ritenbaugh C, Newman V, Pierce JP, et al. Low‐energy reporting in women at risk for breast cancer recurrence. Women's Healthy Eating and Living Group. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention 2000;9(10):1091‐7. - PubMed
    1. Gold EB, Flatt SW, Pierce JP, Bardwell WA, Hajek RA, Newman VA, et al. Dietary factors and vasomotor symptoms in breast cancer survivors: the WHEL Study. Menopause 2006;13(3):423‐33. - PubMed
    1. Gold EB, Pierce JP, Natarajan L, Stefanick ML, Laughlin GA, Caan BJ, et al. Dietary pattern influences breast cancer prognosis in women without hot flashes: the women's healthy eating and living trial. Journal of Clinical Oncology 2009;27(3):352‐9. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Hernandez‐Valero MA, Thomson CA, Hernandez M, Tran T, Detry MA, Theriault RL, et al. Comparison of baseline dietary intake of Hispanic and matched non‐Hispanic white breast cancer survivors enrolled in the Women's Healthy Eating and Living study. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 2008;108(8):1323‐9. - PMC - PubMed
WHI 2006 {published data only}
    1. Anderson G, Cummings S, Freedman LS, Furberg C, Henderson M, Johnson SR, et al. Design of the Women's Health Initiative clinical trial and observational study. Controlled Clinical Trials 1998;19(1):61‐109. - PubMed
    1. Anderson GL, Manson J, Wallace R, Lund B, Hall D, Davis S, et al. Implementation of the Women's Health Initiative study design. Annals of Epidemiology 2003;13(9 Suppl):S5‐17. - PubMed
    1. Beresford SA, Johnson KC, Ritenbaugh C, Lasser NL, Snetselaar LG, Black HR, et al. Low‐fat dietary pattern and risk of colorectal cancer: the Women's Health Initiative Randomized Controlled Dietary Modification Trial. JAMA 2006;295(6):643‐54. - PubMed
    1. Bowen D, Ehret C, Pedersen M, Snetselaar L, Johnson M, Tinker L, et al. Results of an adjunct dietary intervention program in the Women's Health Initiative. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 2002;102(11):1631‐7. - PubMed
    1. Curb JD, McTiernan A, Heckbert SR, Kooperberg C, Stanford J, Nevitt M, et al. Outcomes ascertainment and adjudication methods in the Women's Health Initiative. Annals of Epidemiology 2003;13(9 Suppl):S122‐8. - PubMed
WHT:FSMP 2003 {published and unpublished data}
    1. Hall WD, Feng Z, George VA, Lewis CE, Oberman A, Huber M, et al for the WHT:FSMP. Low‐fat diet: effect on anthropometrics, blood pressure, glucose and insulin in older women. Ethnicity and Disease 2003;13:337‐43. - PubMed
WHT Feasibility 1990 {published and unpublished data}
    1. Bowen D, Clifford CK, Coates R, Evans M, Feng Z, Fouad M, et al. The Women's Health Trial Feasibility Study in Minority Populations: design and baseline descriptions. Annals of Epidemiology 1996;6(6):507‐19. - PubMed
    1. Hall WD, Feng Z, George VA, Lewis CE, Oberman A, Huber M, et al. Low‐fat diet: effect on anthropometrics, blood pressure, glucose, and insulin in older women. Ethnicity and Disease 2003;13:337‐43. - PubMed
WINS 1993 {published and unpublished data}
    1. Chlebowski RT, Blackburn GL, Buzzard IM, Rose DP, Martino S, Khandekar JD, et al. Adherence to a dietary fat intake reduction program in postmenopausal women receiving therapy for early breast cancer. The Women's Intervention Nutrition Study. Journal of Clinical Oncology 1993;11(11):2072‐80. - PubMed
    1. Chlebowski RT, Blackburn GL, Thomson CA, Nixon DW, Shapiro A, Hoy MK, et al. Dietary fat reduction and breast cancer outcome: interim efficacy results from the Women's Intervention Nutrition Study. JNCI Journal of the National Cancer Institute 2006;98(24):1767‐76. - PubMed
    1. Chlebowski RT, Rose DP, Buzzard IM, Blackburn GL, York M, Insull W, et al. Dietary fat reduction in adjuvant breast cancer therapy: current rationale and feasibility issues. Adjuvant Ther Cancer 1990;6:357‐63.
    1. Hoy MK, Winters BL, Chlebowski RT, Papoutsakis C, Shapiro A, Lubin MP, et al. Implementing a low‐fat eating plan in the Women's Intervention Nutrition Study. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 2009;109(4):688‐96. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Rose DP, Chlebowski RT, Connolly JM, Jones LA, Wynder EL. Effects of tamoxifen adjuvant therapy and a low‐fat diet on serum binding proteins and estradiol bioavailability in postmenopausal breast cancer patients. Cancer Research 1992;52:5386‐90. - PubMed

References to studies excluded from this review

Agewall 2001 {published data only}
    1. Agewall S. Multiple risk intervention trial in high risk hypertensive men: comparison of ultrasound intima‐media thickness and clinical outcome during 6 years of follow‐up. Journal of Internal Medicine 2001;249(4):305‐14. - PubMed
Ammerman 2003 {published data only}
    1. Ammerman AS, Keyserling TC, Atwood JR, Hosking JD, Zayed H, Krasny C. A randomized controlled trial of a public health nurse directed treatment program for rural patients with high blood cholesterol. Preventive Medicine 2003;36(3):340‐51. - PubMed
Anti‐Coronary C 1966 {published data only}
    1. Christakis G, Rinzler SH, Archer M, Kraus A. Effect of the Anti‐Coronary Club Program on coronary heart disease risk factor status. JAMA 1969;198:129‐36. - PubMed
    1. Christakis G, Rinzler SH, Archer M, Maslansky E. Summary of the research activities of the Anti‐Coronary Club. Public Health Reports (Washington) 1966;81:64‐70. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Jolliffe N, Baumgarter L, Rinzler SH, Archer M, Stephenson JH, Christakis GJ. The Anti‐Coronary Club: the first four years. New York State Journal of Medicine 1963;63:69‐79. - PubMed
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Aquilani 2000 {published data only}
    1. Aquilani R, Tramarin R, Pedretti RFE, Bertolotti G, Sommaruga M, Mariani P, et al. Can a very‐low‐fat diet achieve cholesterol goals in CAD?. Cardiology Review 2000;17(10):36‐40.
Arne 2014 {published data only}
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Arntzenius 1985 {published data only}
    1. Arntzenius AC, Kromhout D, Bartn JE, Reiber JHC, Bruschke AVG, Buis Van Gent CM. Diet, lipoprotiens and progression of coronary atherosclerosis: the Leiden intervention trial. New England Journal of Medicine 1985;312:805‐8. - PubMed
Aro 1990 {published data only}
    1. Aro A, Ahola I, Jauhiainen M, et al. Effects of plasma phospholipid fatty acids of rapeseed oil and sunflower oil diets [Abstract]. Arteriosclerosis 1990;10:877a.
ASSIST 2001 {published data only}
    1. Moher M, Yudkin P, Wright L, Turner R, Fuller A, Schofield T, et al. Cluster randomised controlled trial to compare three methods of promoting secondary prevention of coronary heart disease in primary care. BMJ 2001;322(7298):1338. - PMC - PubMed
Australian Polyp Prev {published and unpublished data}
    1. MacLennan R, Macrae F, Bain C, Battistutta D, Chapuis P, Gratten H, et al. Randomized trial of intake of fat, fiber, and beta carotene to prevent colorectal adenomas. The Australian Polyp Prevention Project. Journal of the National Cancer Institute 1995;87(23):1760‐6. - PubMed
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    1. Macrae FA, Hughes NR, Bhathal PS, Tay D, Selbie L, MacLennan R. Dietary suppression of rectal epthelial cell proliferation. Gastroenterology 1991;100:A383.
Baer 1993 {published data only}
    1. Baer JT. Improved plasma cholesterol levels in men after a nutrition education program at the worksite. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 1993;93(6):658‐63. - PubMed
Bakx 1997 {published data only}
    1. Bakx JC, Stafleu A, van SW, van‐den HH, van WC. Long‐term effect of nutritional counseling: a study in family medicine. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1997;65(6 Suppl):1946S‐50S. - PubMed
Barnard 2009 {published data only}
    1. Barnard ND, Cohen J, Jenkins DJ, Turner‐McGrievy G, Gloede L, Green A, et al. A low‐fat vegan diet and a conventional diabetes diet in the treatment of type 2 diabetes: a randomized, controlled, 74‐wk clinical trial. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2009;89(5):1588S‐96S. - PMC - PubMed
Barndt 1977 {published data only}
    1. Barndt R, Blankenhorn CH, Crawford DW, et al. Regression and progression of early femoral atherosclerosis in treated hyperlipidaemic patients. Annals of Internal Medicine 1977;86:139‐46. - PubMed
Baron 1990 {published data only}
    1. Baron JA, Gleason R, Crowe B, Mann JI. Preliminary trial of the effect of general practice based nutritional advice. British Journal of General Practice 1990;40(333):137‐41. - PMC - PubMed
Barr 1990 {published data only}
    1. Barr SL, Ramakrishnan R, Holleran S, et al. A 30% fat diet high in polyunsaturates and a 30% fat diet high in monounsaturates both lower total and low density lipoprotein cholesterol levels in normal males [Abstract]. Arteriosclerosis 1990;10:872a.
Baumann 1982 {published data only}
    1. Baumann J, Martschick R. Therapy of hyperlipidemia with xanthinol nicotinate as opposed to low fat diet [Therapie der Hyperlipidamie mit Xantinolnicotinat gegenuber fettarmer Diat]. Die Medizinische Welt 1982;33(4):139‐41. - PubMed
Bazzano 2012 {published data only}
    1. Bazzano LA, Hu T, Reynolds K, Yao L, Bunol C, Liu Y, et al. Effects of low‐carbohydrate and low‐fat diets: a randomized trial. Annals of Internal Medicine 2014;161(5):309‐18. [10.7326/P14‐9029; PMID: 25178581]] - PMC - PubMed
    1. Bazzano LAR. Effect of a low‐carbohydrate diet on weight and cardiovascular risk factors: a randomized controlled trial. Circulation 2012;125:AP306.
Beckmann 1988 {published data only}
    1. Beckmann SL, Os I, Kjeldsen SE, Mogensen B, Norum KR, Hjermann I. Non‐pharmacological treatment of mild to moderate hypertension. A randomized, controlled study‐‐results 1 1/2 years later. Tidsskrift For Den Norske Laegeforening 1988;108:1593‐7. - PubMed
Beckmann 1995 {published data only}
    1. Beckmann SL, Os I, Kjeldsen SE, Eide IK, Westheim AS, Hjermann I. Effect of dietary counselling on blood pressure and arterial plasma catecholamines in primary hypertension. American Journal of Hypertension 1995;8(7):704‐11. - PubMed
Beresford 1992 {published data only}
    1. Beresford SAA, Farmer EMZ, Feingold L, Graves KL, Sumner SK, Baker RM. Evaluation of a self‐help dietary intervention in a primary care setting. American Journal of Public Health 1992;82:79‐84. - PMC - PubMed
Bergstrom 1967 {published data only}
    1. Bergstrom G, Svanborg A. Dietary treatment of acute myocardial infarction. Acta Medica Scandinavica 1967;181(6):717‐21. - PubMed
Bierenbaum 1963 {published data only}
    1. Bierenbaum ML, Fleischman AI, Raichelson RI, Hayton T, Watson P. Ten year experience of modified fat diets on younger men with coronary heart disease. Lancet 1973;i:1404‐7. - PubMed
    1. Bierenbaum ML, Green DP, Florin A, Fleischman AI, Caldwell AB. Modified‐fat dietary management of the young male with coronary disease. A five‐year report. JAMA 1967;202(13):1119‐23. - PubMed
    1. Bierenbaum ML, Green DP, Gherman C, Florin A, Caldwell AB. The effects of two low fat dietary patterns on the blood cholesterol levels of young male coronary patients. Journal of Chronic Diseases 1963;16:1073‐83. - PubMed
Bloomgarden 1987 {published data only}
    1. Bloomgarden ZT, Karmally W, Metzger MJ, Brothers M, Nechemias C, Bookman J, et al. Randomized, controlled trial of diabetic patient education: improved knowledge without improved metabolic status. Diabetes Care 1987;10:263‐72. - PubMed
Bonnema 1995 {published data only}
    1. Bonnema SJ, Jespersen LT, Marving J, Gregersen G. Supplementation with olive oil rather than fish oil increases small arterial compliance in diabetic patients. Diabetes, Nutrition and Metabolism Clinical and Experimental 1995;8:81‐7.
Bosaeus 1992 {published data only}
    1. Bosaeus I, Belfrage L, Lindgren C, Andersson H. Olive oil instead of butter increases net cholesterol excretion from the small bowel. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1992;46(2):111‐5. - PubMed
Boyar 1988 {published data only}
    1. Boyar AP, Rose DP, Loughridge JR, Engle A, Palge A, Laakso K, et al. Response to a diet low in total fat in women with postmenopausal breast cancer: a pilot study. Nutrition and Cancer 1988;11:93‐9. - PubMed
Brehm 2009 {published data only (unpublished sought but not used)}
    1. Brehm BJ, Lattin BL, Summer SS, Boback JA, Gilchrist GM, Jandacek RJ, et al. One‐year comparison of a high‐monounsaturated fat diet with a high‐carbohydrate diet in type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care 2009;32(2):215‐20. - PMC - PubMed
Brensike 1982 {published data only}
    1. Brensike JF, Kelsey SF, Passamani ER, Fisher MR, Richardson JM, Loh IK, et al. National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute type II Coronary Intervention Study: design, methods, and baseline characteristics. Controlled Clinical Trials 1982;3(2):91‐111. - PubMed
Broekmans 2003 {published and unpublished data}
    1. Broekmans WMR, Klopping‐Ketelaars IAA, Weststrate JA, Tijburg LBM, Poppel G, Vink AA, et al. Decreased carotenoid concentrations due to dietary sucrose polyesters do not affect possible markers of disease risk in humans. Journal of Nutrition 2003;133:720‐6. - PubMed
Brown 1984 {published data only}
    1. Brown GD, Whyte L, Gee MI, Crockford PM, Grace M, Oberle K, et al. Effects of two "lipid‐lowering" diets on plasma lipid levels of patients with peripheral vascular disease. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 1984;84(5):546‐50. - PubMed
Bruce 1994 {published data only}
    1. Bruce SL, Grove SK. The effect of a coronary artery risk evaluation program on serum lipid values and cardiovascular risk levels. Applied Nursing Research 1994;7(2):67‐74. - PubMed
Bruno 1983 {published data only}
    1. Bruno R, Arnold C, Jacobson L, Winick M, Wynder E. Randomized controlled trial of a nonpharmacologic cholesterol reduction program at the worksite. Preventive Medicine 1983;12(4):523‐32. - PubMed
Butcher 1990 {published data only}
    1. Butcher LA, O'Dea K, Sinclair AJ, Parkin JD, Smith IL, Blombery P. The effects of very low fat diets enriched with fish or kangaroo meat on cold‐induced vasoconstriction and platelet function. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent. Fatty Acids 1990;39(3):221‐6. - PubMed
Butowski 1998 {published data only}
    1. Butowski PF, Winder AF. Usual care dietary practice, achievement and implications for medication in the management of hypercholesterolaemia. European Heart Journal 1998;19:1328‐33. - PubMed
Byers 1995 {published data only}
    1. Byers T, Mullis R, Anderson J, Dusenbury L, Gorsky R, Kimber C, et al. The costs and effects of a nutritional education program following work‐site cholesterol screening. American Journal of Public Health 1995;85(5):650‐5. - PMC - PubMed
Caggiula 1996 {published data only}
    1. Caggiula AW, Watson JE, Kuller LH, Olson MB, Milas NC, Berry M, et al. Cholesterol‐lowering intervention program. Effect of the step I diet in community office practices. Archives of Internal Medicine 1996;156(11):1205‐13. - PubMed
CARMEN 2000 {published and unpublished data}
    1. Poppitt SD, Keogh GF, Prentice AM, Williams DEM, Sonnemans HMW, Valk EEJ, et al. Long‐term effects of ad libitum low‐fat, high‐carbohydrate diets on body weight and serum lipids in overweight subjects with metabolic syndrome. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2002;75:11‐20. - PubMed
    1. Raben A, Astrup A, Vasilaras TH, Prentice AM, Zunft H‐JF, Formiguera X, et al. The CARMEN study [CARMEN‐studiet]. Ugeskrift fur Laeger 2002;164(5):627‐31. - PubMed
    1. Saris WHM, Astrup A, Prentice AM, Zunft FJF, Formiguera X. CARMEN Project: European multicentre study on the impact of dietary fat/CHO ratio and simple/complex CHO changes on long term weight control in overweight subjects. International Journal of Obesity 1997;21(Suppl 2):S71.
    1. Saris WHM, Astrup A, Prentice AM, Zunft HJF, Formiguera X, Verboeket‐van de Venne WPHG, et al. Randomized controlled trial of changes in dietary carbohydrate/fat ratio and simple vs complex carbohydrates on body weight and blood lipids: the CARMEN study. International Journal of Obesity 2000;24:1310‐8. - PubMed
    1. Vasilaras TH, Astrup A, Raben A. Micronutrient intake in overweight subjects is not deficient on and ad libitum fat‐reduced, high‐simple carbohydrate diet. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2004;58:326‐36. - PubMed
CARMEN MS sub‐study {published and unpublished data}
    1. Poppitt SD, Keogh GF, Prentice AM, Williams DEM, Sonnemans HMW, Valk EEJ, et al. Long‐term effects of ad libitum low‐fat, high‐carbohydrate diets on body weight and serum lipids in overweight subjects with metabolic syndrome. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2002;75:11‐20. - PubMed
Cerin 1993 {published data only}
    1. Cerin A, Collins A, Landgren BM, Eneroth P. Hormonal and biochemical profiles of premenstrual syndrome. Treatment with essential fatty acids. Acta Obstetricia et Gynecologica Scandinavica 1993;72(5):337‐43. - PubMed
Chan 1993 {published data only}
    1. Chan JK, McDonald BE, Gerrard JM, Bruce VM, Weaver BJ, Holub BJ. Effect of dietary alpha‐linolenic acid and its ratio to linolenic acid on platelet and plasma fatty acids and thrombogenesis. Lipids 1993;28:811‐7. - PubMed
Chapman 1950 {published data only}
    1. Chapman CB, Gibbons T, Henschel A. The effect of the rice‐fruit diet on the composition of the body. New England Journal of Medicine 1950;243:899‐905. - PubMed
Charbonnier 1975 {published data only}
    1. Charbonnier A, Nepveux P, Fluteau G, Fluteau D. Immediate effects of ingestion of olive oil on the principal lipid constituents of the plasma. Comparison with other edible fats. Médecine & Chirurgie Digestives 1975;4 Suppl 2:73‐9. - PubMed
Cheng 2004 {published data only}
    1. Cheng C, Graziani C, Diamond JJ, Cheng C, Graziani C, Diamond JJ. Cholesterol‐lowering effect of the Food for Heart Nutrition Education Program. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 2004;104(12):1868‐72. - PubMed
Chicago CPEP 1977 {published data only}
    1. Farinaro E, Stamler J, Upton M, Mojonnier L, Hall Y, Moss D, et al. Plasma glucose levels: long term effect of diet in the Chicago Coronary Prevention Evaluation Program. Annals of Internal Medicine 1977;86:147‐54. - PubMed
Chiostri 1988 {published data only}
    1. Chiostri JE, Kwiterovich PO. Effect of American Heart Association Phase 2 diet versus eater's choice based diet on hypercholesterolaemia. Circulation 1988;78(4):II‐385.
Choudhury 1984 {published data only}
    1. Choudhury S, Jackson P, Katan MB, Marenah CB, Cortese C, Miller NE, et al. A multifactorial diet in the management of hyperlipidaemia. Atherosclerosis 1984;50:93‐103. - PubMed
Clark 1997 {published data only}
    1. Clark M, Ghandour G, Miller NH, Taylor CB, Bandura A, DeBusk RF. Development and evaluation of a computer‐based system for dietary management of hyperlipidemia. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 1997;97(2):146‐50. - PubMed
Clifton 1992 {published data only}
    1. Clifton PM, Wight MB, Nestel PJ. Is fat restriction needed with HMGCoA reductase inhibitor treatment?. Atherosclerosis 1992;93(1‐2):59‐70. - PubMed
Cobb 1991 {published data only}
    1. Cobb MM, Teitelbaum HS, Breslow JL. Lovastatin efficacy in reducing low‐density lipoprotein cholesterol levels on high‐ vs low‐fat diets. JAMA 1991;265(8):997‐1001. - PubMed
Cohen 1991 {published data only}
    1. Cohen MD, D'Amico FJ, Merenstein JH. Weight reduction in obese hypertensive patients. Family Medicine 1991;23(1):25‐8. - PubMed
Cole 1988 {published data only}
    1. Cole TG, Schmeisser D, Prewitt TE, et al. AHA phase 3 diet reduces cholesterol in moderately hypercholesterolemic premenopausal women [Abstract]. Circulation 1988;78(4):II‐73.
Colquhoun 1990 {published data only}
    1. Colquhoun DM, Moores D, Somerset SM. Comparison of the effects of an avocado enriched and American Heart Association diets on lipid levels [Abstract]. Arteriosclerosis 1990;10:875a.
Consolazio 1946 {published data only}
    1. Consolazio FC, Forbes WH. The effects of high fat diet in a temperate environment. Journal of Nutrition 1946;32:195‐204. - PubMed
Coppell 2010 {published data only}
    1. Coppell KJK. Nutritional intervention in patients with type 2 diabetes who are hyperglycaemic despite optimised drug treatment ‐ Lifestyle over and above drugs in diabetes (LOADD) study: randomised controlled trial. BMJ 2010;341:237. - PMC - PubMed
Cox 1996 {published data only}
    1. Cox RH, Gonzales‐Vigilar MCRV, Novascone MA, Silva‐Barbeau I. Impact of a cancer intervention on diet‐related cardiovascular disease risks of white and African‐American EFNEP clients. Journal of Nutrition Education 1996;28:209‐18.
Croft 1986 {published data only}
    1. Croft PR, Brigg D, Smith S, Harrison CB, Branthwaite A, Collins MF. How useful is weight reduction in the management of hypertension?. Journal of the Royal College of General Practitioners 1986;36(291):445‐8. - PMC - PubMed
Crouch 1986 {published data only}
    1. Crouch M, Sallis JF, Farquar JW, Haskell WL, Ellsworth NM, King AB, et al. Personal and mediated health counselling for sustained dietary reduction of hypercholesterolaemia. Preventive Medicine 1986;15:282‐91. - PubMed
Dalgard 2001 {published data only}
    1. Dalgard C, Thuroe A, Haastrup B, Haghfelt T, Stender S. Saturated fat intake is reduced in patients with ischemic heart disease 1 year after comprehensive counseling but not after brief counseling. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 2001;101(12):1420‐9. - PubMed
Da Qing IGT 1997 {published data only}
    1. Pan XR, Li GW, Hu YH, Wang JX, Yang WY, An ZX, et al. Effects of diet and exercise in preventing NIDDM in people with impaired glucose tolerance. The Da Qing IGT and Diabetes Study. Diabetes Care 1997;20(4):537‐44. - PubMed
DAS 1989 {published data only}
    1. Bovbjerg VE, McCann BS, Brief DJ, Follette WC, Retzlaff BM, Dowdy AA, et al. Spouse support and long‐term adherence to lipid‐lowering diets. American Journal of Epidemiology 1995;141(5):451‐60. - PubMed
    1. Knopp RH, Retzlaff B, Walden C, Fish B, Buck B, McCann B. One‐year effects of increasingly fat‐restricted, carbohydrate‐enriched diets on lipoprotein levels in free‐living subjects. Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology & Medicine 2000;225(3):191‐9. - PubMed
    1. Knopp RH, Walden CE, McCann BS, Retzlaff B, Dowdy A, Gey G, et al. Serial changes in lipoprotein cholesterol in hypercholesterolemic men treated with alternative diets [abstract]. Arteriosclerosis 1989;9:745A.
    1. Knopp RH, Walden CE, Retzlaff BM, McCann BS, Dowdy AA, Albers JJ, et al. Long‐term cholesterol‐lowering effects of 4 fat‐restricted diets in hypercholesterolaemic and combined hyperlipidaemic men: The Dietary Alternatives Study. JAMA 1997;278:1509‐15. - PubMed
    1. Walden CE, McCann BS, Retzlaff B, Dowdy A, Hanson M, Fish B, et al. Alternative fat‐restricted diets for hypercholesterolemia and combined hyperlipidemia: feasibility, design, subject recruitment, and baseline characteristics of the. Journal of the American College of Nutrition 1991;10(5):429‐42. - PubMed
DASH 1997 {published data only}
    1. Appel LJ, Moore TJ, Obarzanek E, Vollmer WM, Svetkey LP, Sacks FM, et al. A clinical trial of the effects of dietary patterns on blood pressure. DASH Collaborative Research Group. New England Journal of Medicine 1997;336(16):1117‐24. - PubMed
    1. Blackburn GL. Functional foods in the prevention and treatment of disease: significance of the Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension Study. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1997;66(5):1067‐71. - PubMed
Davey Smith 2005 {published data only}
    1. Davey Smith G, Bracha Y, Svendsen KH, Neaton JD, Haffner SM, Kuller LH, et al. Incidence of type 2 diabetes in the randomized multiple risk factor intervention trial. Annals of Internal Medicine 2005;142(5):313‐22. - PubMed
de Boer 1983 {published data only}
    1. Boer AC, Turek JV, Pannebakker MA, den OG. The effect of diets high in polyunsaturated and high in saturated fatty acids on blood lipids and platelet tests in patients with coronary artery disease (CAD) [abstract]. Thrombosis And Haemostasis 1983;50:96.
DeBusk 1994 {published data only}
    1. DeBusk RF, Miller NH, Superko HR, Dennis CA, Thomas RJ, Lew HT, et al. A case‐management system for coronary risk factor modification after acute myocardial infarction [see comments]. Annals of Internal Medicine 1994;120(9):721‐9. - PubMed
Delahanty 2001 {published data only}
    1. Delahanty LM, Hayden D, Ammerman A, Nathan DM. Medical nutrition therapy for hypercholesterolemia positively affects patient satisfaction and quality of life outcomes. Annals of Behavioral Medicine 2002;24(4):269‐78. - PubMed
    1. Delahanty LM, Sonnenberg LM, Hayden D, Nathan DM. Clinical and cost outcomes of medical nutrition therapy for hypercholesterolemia: a controlled trial. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 2001;101(9):1012‐23. - PubMed
Delius 1969 {published data only}
    1. Delius L. Treatment of hypotensive circulatory disorder [Die Behandlung der hypotonen Kreislaufregulationsstorung]. Deutsche Medizinische Wochenschrift 1969;94(42):2172‐3. - PubMed
Demark 1990 {published data only}
    1. Demark WW, Bowering J, Cohen PS. Reduced serum cholesterol with dietary change using fat‐modified and oat bran supplemented diets. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 1990;90(2):223‐9. - PubMed
Dengel 1995 {published data only}
    1. Dengel JL, Katzel LI, Goldberg AP. Effect of an American Heart Association diet, with or without weight loss, on lipids in obese middle‐aged and older men. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1995;62(4):715‐21. - PubMed
Denke 1994 {published data only}
    1. Denke MA, Grundy SM. Individual responses to a cholesterol lowering diet in 50 men with moderate hypercholesterolaemia. Archives of Internal Medicine 1994;154:17‐25. - PubMed
Diabetes CCT 1995 {published data only}
    1. Anon. Effect of intensive diabetes management on macrovascular events and risk factors in the Diabetes Control and Complications Trial. American Journal of Cardiology 1995;75:894‐903. - PubMed
DIET 1998 {published data only}
    1. Dornelas EA, Wylie‐Rosett J, Swencionis C. The DIET study: long term outcomes of a cognitive‐behavioural weight control intervention in independent‐living elders. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 1998;98(11):1276‐81. - PubMed
Ding 1992 {published data only}
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DIRECT 2009 {published data only (unpublished sought but not used)}
    1. Ben‐Avraham S, Harman‐Boehm I, Schwarzfuchs D, Shai I. Dietary strategies for patients with type 2 diabetes in the era of multi‐approaches; review and results from the Dietary Intervention Randomized Controlled Trial (DIRECT). Diabetes Research and Clinical Practice 2009;86(Suppl 1):S41‐8. - PubMed
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Dutch Nutrition Guide {published data only (unpublished sought but not used)}
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Eating Patterns 1997 {published and unpublished data}
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FRESH START 2007 {published data only}
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German Fat Reduced {published and unpublished data}
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Gjone 1972 {published data only}
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    1. Borel P, Moussa M, Reboul E, Lyan B, Defoort C, Vincent‐Baudry S, et al. Human fasting plasma concentrations of vitamin E and carotenoids, and their association with genetic variants in apo C‐III, cholesteryl ester transfer protein, hepatic lipase, intestinal fatty acid binding protein and microsomal triacylglycerol transfer protein. British Journal of Nutrition 2009;101(5):680‐7. - PubMed
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    1. Due A, Larsen TM, Hermansen K, Stender S, Holst JJ, Toubro S, et al. Comparison of the effects on insulin resistance and glucose tolerance of 6‐mo high‐monounsaturated‐fat, low‐fat, and control diets. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2008;87(4):855‐62. - PubMed
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Oslo Study 1980 {published data only}
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Otago Weight Loss 2005 {published and unpublished data}
    1. McAuley KA, Hopkins CM, Smith KJ, McLay RT, Williams SM, Taylor RW, et al. Comparison of a high‐fat and high‐protein diets with a high‐carbohydrate diet in insulin‐resistant obese women. Diabetologia 2005;48:8‐16. - PubMed
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Pandey 2013 {published data only}
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    1. Pascale RW, Wing RR, Butler BA, Mullen M, Bononi P. Effects of a behavioral weight loss program stressing calorie restriction versus calorie plus fat restriction in obese individuals with NIDDM or a family history of diabetes. Diabetes Care 1995;18(9):1241‐8. - PubMed
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PREDIMED 2007 {published data only (unpublished sought but not used)}
    1. Buil‐Cosiales P, Irimia P, Ros E, Riverol M, Gilabert R, Martinez‐Vila E, et al. Dietary fibre intake is inversely associated with carotid intima‐media thickness: a cross‐sectional assessment in the PREDIMED study. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2009;63(10):1213‐9. - PubMed
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PREMIER 2003 {published and unpublished data}
    1. Appel LJ, Champagne CM, Harsha DW, Cooper LS, Obarzanek E, Elmer PJ, et al. Effects of comprehensive lifestyle modification on blood pressure control: main results of the PREMIER clinical trial. JAMA 2003;289(16):2083‐93. - PubMed
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Pritchard 2002 {published data only}
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Puget Sound EP {published and unpublished data}
    1. Kristal AR, Curry SJ, Shattuck AL, Feng Z, Li S. A randomized trial of a tailored, self‐help dietary intervention: the Puget Sound Eating Patterns Study. Preventive Medicine 2000;31:380‐9. - PubMed
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Reaven 2001 {published data only}
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Roman CHD prev 1986 {published data only}
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Sacks 2009 {published and unpublished data}
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Salas‐Salvado 2014 {published data only}
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Singh 1992 {published data only}
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Siqueira‐Catania 2010 {published data only}
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Sirtori 1992 {published data only}
    1. Sirtori CR, Gatti E, Tremoli E, Galli C, Gianfranceschi G, Franceschini G, et al. Olive oil, corn oil, and n‐3 fatty acids differently affect lipids, lipoproteins, platelets, and superoxide formation in type II hypercholesterolemia. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1992;56(1):113‐22. - PubMed
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Sollentuna Diet {published and unpublished data}
    1. Hellenius M‐L. Prevention of cardiovascular disease: studies on the role of diet and exercise in the prevention of cardiovascular disease among middle‐aged men [PhD Thesis]. Huddinge, Sweden: Karolinska Institute, 1995.
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    1. Hellenius M‐L. Prevention of cardiovascular disease: studies on the role of diet and exercise in the prevention of cardiovascular disease among middle‐aged men [PhD Thesis]. Huddinge, Sweden: Karolinska Institute, 1995.
    1. Hellenius M‐L, Krakau I, Faire U. Favourable long‐term effects from advice on diet and exercise given to healthy men with raised cardiovascular risks. Nutrition, Metabolism, and Cardiovascular Diseases 1997;7:293‐300.
    1. Hellenius ML, Brismar KE, Berglund BH, de FU. Effects on glucose tolerance, insulin secretion, insulin‐like growth factor 1 and its binding protein, IGFBP‐1, in a randomized controlled diet and exercise study in healthy, middle‐aged men. Journal of Internal Medicine 1995;238(2):121‐30. - PubMed
    1. Hellenius ML, Dahlof C, Aberg H, Krakau I, de FU. Quality of life is not negatively affected by diet and exercise intervention in healthy men with cardiovascular risk factors. Quality of Life Research 1995;4(1):13‐20. - PubMed
    1. Hellenius ML, de FU, Berglund B, Hamsten A, Krakau I. Diet and exercise are equally effective in reducing risk for cardiovascular disease. Results of a randomized controlled study in men with slightly to moderately raised cardiovascular risk factors. Atherosclerosis 1993;103(1):81‐91. - PubMed
Sopotsinskaia 1992 {published data only}
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Staff HHP 1994 {published data only}
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Stanford NAP 1997 {published data only}
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Stanford Weight {published and unpublished data}
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Stevenson 1988 {published data only}
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Take Heart II 1997 {published data only}
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    1. Tuttle KR, Shuler LA, Packard DP, Milton JE, Daratha KB, Bibus DM, et al. Comparison of low‐fat versus Mediterranean‐style dietary intervention after first myocardial infarction (from The Heart Institute of Spokane Diet Intervention and Evaluation Trial). American Journal of Cardiology 2008;101(11):1523‐30. - PubMed
TOHP I 1992 {published data only}
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    1. Whelton PK, Appel LJ, Espeland MA, Applegate WB, Ettinger‐WH J, Kostis JB, et al. Sodium reduction and weight loss in the treatment of hypertension in older persons: a randomized controlled trial of nonpharmacologic interventions in the elderly (TONE). TONE Collaborative Research Group. JAMA 1998;279(11):839‐46. - PubMed
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Toronto Polyp Prev 1994 {published and unpublished data}
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Treatwell 1992 {published and unpublished data}
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References to other published versions of this review

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