Bone development

Abstract

The development of the vertebrate skeleton reflects its evolutionary history. Cartilage formation came before biomineralization and a head skeleton evolved before the formation of axial and appendicular skeletal structures. This review describes the processes that result in endochondral and intramembranous ossification, the important roles of growth and transcription factors, and the consequences of mutations in some of the genes involved. Following a summary of the origin of cartilage, muscle, and tendon cell lineages in the axial skeleton, we discuss the role of muscle forces in the formation of skeletal architecture and assembly of musculoskeletal functional units. Finally, ontogenetic patterning of bones in response to mechanical loading is reviewed.This article is part of a Special Issue entitled "Muscle Bone Interactions".

Keywords: Bone development; Endochondral ossification; Intramembranous ossification; Skeletal patterning; Somite differentiation; Tendon–bone attachment; Transcription factors.

Figure 1

Diagrams illustrating the contributions of cranial neural crest cells, somite-derived cells and lateral plate mesodermal cells to the craniofacial, axial and appendicular parts of the mouse skeleton. The notochord under the neural tube (top part) and between the neural tube and the aorta (red ring; bottom part) is indicated by a black dot.

Figure 2

Diagrams illustrating how BMP, Wnt, Shh, Noggin and Fgf4, 5, and 8 control the differentiation of somites into dermomyotome, syndetome and sclerotome compartments (at left). Sclerotomal cells give rise to vertebral bodies, while syndetomal and sclerotomal cells give rise to intervertebral tendons and muscles (at right).