Skip to main page content
U.S. flag

An official website of the United States government

Dot gov

The .gov means it’s official.
Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

Https

The site is secure.
The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

Access keys NCBI Homepage MyNCBI Homepage Main Content Main Navigation
Meta-Analysis
. 2015 Oct 27;2015(10):CD008666.
doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD008666.pub3.

Vitamin A supplementation during pregnancy for maternal and newborn outcomes

Mary E McCauley  1 , Nynke van den Broek, Lixia Dou, Mohammad Othman
Affiliations
Meta-Analysis

Vitamin A supplementation during pregnancy for maternal and newborn outcomes

Mary E McCauley et al. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. .

Abstract

Background: The World Health Organization recommends routine vitamin A supplementation during pregnancy or lactation in areas with endemic vitamin A deficiency (where night blindness occurs), based on the expectation that supplementation will improve maternal and newborn outcomes including mortality, morbidity and prevention of anaemia or infection.

Objectives: To review the effects of supplementation of vitamin A, or one of its derivatives, during pregnancy, alone or in combination with other vitamins and micronutrients, on maternal and newborn clinical outcomes.

Search methods: We searched the Cochrane Pregnancy and Childbirth Group's Trials Register (30 March 2015) and reference lists of retrieved studies.

Selection criteria: All randomised or quasi-randomised trials, including cluster-randomised trials, evaluating the effect of vitamin A supplementation in pregnant women.

Data collection and analysis: Two review authors independently assessed trials for inclusion and risk of bias, extracted data and checked them for accuracy.

Main results: We reviewed 106 reports of 35 trials, published between 1931 and 2015. We included 19 trials including over 310,000 women, excluded 15 trials and one is ongoing. Overall, seven trials were judged to be of low risk of bias, three were high risk of bias and for nine it was unclear. 1) Vitamin A alone versus placebo or no treatmentOverall, when trial results are pooled, vitamin A supplementation does not affect the risk of maternal mortality (risk ratio (RR) 0.88, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.65 to 1.20; four trials Ghana, Nepal, Bangladesh, UK, high quality evidence), perinatal mortality (RR 1.01, 95% CI 0.95 to 1.07; one study, high quality evidence), neonatal mortality, stillbirth, neonatal anaemia, preterm birth (RR 0.98, 95% CI 0.94 to 1.01, five studies, high quality evidence), or the risk of having a low birthweight baby.Vitamin A supplementation reduces the risk of maternal night blindness (RR 0.79, 95% CI 0.64 to 0.98; two trials). There is evidence that vitamin A supplements may reduce maternal clinical infection (RR 0.45, 95% CI 0.20 to 0.99, five trials; South Africa, Nepal, Indonesia, Tanzania, UK, low quality evidence) and maternal anaemia (RR 0.64, 95% CI 0.43 to 0.94; three studies, moderate quality evidence). 2) Vitamin A alone versus micronutrient supplements without vitamin AVitamin A alone compared to micronutrient supplements without vitamin A does not decrease maternal clinical infection (RR 0.99, 95% CI 0.83 to 1.18, two trials, 591 women). No other primary or secondary outcomes were reported 3) Vitamin A with other micronutrients versus micronutrient supplements without vitamin AVitamin A supplementation (with other micronutrients) does not decrease perinatal mortality (RR 0.51, 95% CI 0.10 to 2.69; one study, low quality evidence), maternal anaemia (RR 0.86, 95% CI 0.68 to 1.09; three studies, low quality evidence), maternal clinical infection (RR 0.95, 95% CI 0.80 to 1.13; I² = 45%, two studies, low quality evidence) or preterm birth (RR 0.39, 95% CI 0.08 to 1.93; one study, low quality evidence).In HIV-positive women vitamin A supplementation given with other micronutrients was associated with fewer low birthweight babies (< 2.5 kg) in the supplemented group in one study (RR 0.67, 95% CI 0.47 to 0.96; one study, 594 women).

Authors' conclusions: The pooled results of three large trials in Nepal, Ghana and Bangladesh (with over 153,500 women) do not currently suggest a role for antenatal vitamin A supplementation to reduce maternal or perinatal mortality. However, the populations studied were probably different with regard to baseline vitamin A status and there were problems with follow-up of women. There is good evidence that antenatal vitamin A supplementation reduces maternal night blindness, maternal anaemia for women who live in areas where vitamin A deficiency is common or who are HIV-positive. In addition the available evidence suggests a reduction in maternal infection, but these data are not of a high quality.

PubMed Disclaimer

Conflict of interest statement

N van den Broek is an investigator in the included trial van den Broek 2006 and did not perform any assessment or data extraction for this trial.

Figures

1
1
'Risk of bias' graph: review authors' judgements about each risk of bias item presented as percentages across all included studies.
2
2
'Risk of bias' summary: review authors' judgements about each risk of bias item for each included study.
1.1
1.1. Analysis
Comparison 1 Vitamin A alone versus placebo or no treatment, Outcome 1 Maternal mortality.
1.2
1.2. Analysis
Comparison 1 Vitamin A alone versus placebo or no treatment, Outcome 2 Perinatal mortality.
1.3
1.3. Analysis
Comparison 1 Vitamin A alone versus placebo or no treatment, Outcome 3 Neonatal mortality.
1.4
1.4. Analysis
Comparison 1 Vitamin A alone versus placebo or no treatment, Outcome 4 Stillbirth.
1.5
1.5. Analysis
Comparison 1 Vitamin A alone versus placebo or no treatment, Outcome 5 Maternal anaemia.
1.6
1.6. Analysis
Comparison 1 Vitamin A alone versus placebo or no treatment, Outcome 6 Maternal clinical infection.
1.7
1.7. Analysis
Comparison 1 Vitamin A alone versus placebo or no treatment, Outcome 7 Maternal night blindness.
1.8
1.8. Analysis
Comparison 1 Vitamin A alone versus placebo or no treatment, Outcome 8 Preterm birth.
1.9
1.9. Analysis
Comparison 1 Vitamin A alone versus placebo or no treatment, Outcome 9 Neonatal anaemia.
1.12
1.12. Analysis
Comparison 1 Vitamin A alone versus placebo or no treatment, Outcome 12 Low birthweight.
2.6
2.6. Analysis
Comparison 2 Vitamin A alone versus micronutrient supplement without vitamin A, Outcome 6 Maternal clinical infection.
3.2
3.2. Analysis
Comparison 3 Vitamin A with other micronutrients versus micronutrient supplements without vitamin A, Outcome 2 Perinatal mortality.
3.3
3.3. Analysis
Comparison 3 Vitamin A with other micronutrients versus micronutrient supplements without vitamin A, Outcome 3 Neonatal mortality.
3.4
3.4. Analysis
Comparison 3 Vitamin A with other micronutrients versus micronutrient supplements without vitamin A, Outcome 4 Stillbirth.
3.5
3.5. Analysis
Comparison 3 Vitamin A with other micronutrients versus micronutrient supplements without vitamin A, Outcome 5 Maternal anaemia.
3.6
3.6. Analysis
Comparison 3 Vitamin A with other micronutrients versus micronutrient supplements without vitamin A, Outcome 6 Maternal clinical infection.
3.8
3.8. Analysis
Comparison 3 Vitamin A with other micronutrients versus micronutrient supplements without vitamin A, Outcome 8 Preterm birth.
3.9
3.9. Analysis
Comparison 3 Vitamin A with other micronutrients versus micronutrient supplements without vitamin A, Outcome 9 Neonatal anaemia.
3.11
3.11. Analysis
Comparison 3 Vitamin A with other micronutrients versus micronutrient supplements without vitamin A, Outcome 11 Congenital malformations.
3.12
3.12. Analysis
Comparison 3 Vitamin A with other micronutrients versus micronutrient supplements without vitamin A, Outcome 12 Low birthweight.
4.1
4.1. Analysis
Comparison 4 Vitamin A alone versus placebo or no treatment (subgroups), Outcome 1 Perinatal mortality (infant mortality level).
4.2
4.2. Analysis
Comparison 4 Vitamin A alone versus placebo or no treatment (subgroups), Outcome 2 Maternal mortality (infant mortality level).
4.3
4.3. Analysis
Comparison 4 Vitamin A alone versus placebo or no treatment (subgroups), Outcome 3 Maternal mortality (maternal mortality level).
4.4
4.4. Analysis
Comparison 4 Vitamin A alone versus placebo or no treatment (subgroups), Outcome 4 Perinatal mortality (maternal mortality level).
4.5
4.5. Analysis
Comparison 4 Vitamin A alone versus placebo or no treatment (subgroups), Outcome 5 Maternal mortality (prevalence of vitamin A deficiency).
4.6
4.6. Analysis
Comparison 4 Vitamin A alone versus placebo or no treatment (subgroups), Outcome 6 Perinatal mortality (prevalence of vitamin A deficiency).
4.7
4.7. Analysis
Comparison 4 Vitamin A alone versus placebo or no treatment (subgroups), Outcome 7 Maternal mortality (prevalence of HIV in the general population).
4.8
4.8. Analysis
Comparison 4 Vitamin A alone versus placebo or no treatment (subgroups), Outcome 8 Perinatal mortality (prevalence of HIV in the general population).
4.9
4.9. Analysis
Comparison 4 Vitamin A alone versus placebo or no treatment (subgroups), Outcome 9 Maternal mortality (dose).
4.10
4.10. Analysis
Comparison 4 Vitamin A alone versus placebo or no treatment (subgroups), Outcome 10 Perinatal mortality (dose).
4.11
4.11. Analysis
Comparison 4 Vitamin A alone versus placebo or no treatment (subgroups), Outcome 11 Maternal mortality (regimen).
4.12
4.12. Analysis
Comparison 4 Vitamin A alone versus placebo or no treatment (subgroups), Outcome 12 Perinatal mortality (regimen).
4.13
4.13. Analysis
Comparison 4 Vitamin A alone versus placebo or no treatment (subgroups), Outcome 13 Maternal mortality (duration of intervention).
4.15
4.15. Analysis
Comparison 4 Vitamin A alone versus placebo or no treatment (subgroups), Outcome 15 Maternal mortality (trimester of pregnancy).
4.16
4.16. Analysis
Comparison 4 Vitamin A alone versus placebo or no treatment (subgroups), Outcome 16 Perinatal mortality (trimester of pregnancy).
4.17
4.17. Analysis
Comparison 4 Vitamin A alone versus placebo or no treatment (subgroups), Outcome 17 Maternal mortality (randomisation).
4.18
4.18. Analysis
Comparison 4 Vitamin A alone versus placebo or no treatment (subgroups), Outcome 18 Perinatal mortality (randomisation).
6.2
6.2. Analysis
Comparison 6 Vitamin A with other micronutrients versus micronutrient supplements without vitamin A (subgroups), Outcome 2 Perinatal mortality (infant mortality level).
6.4
6.4. Analysis
Comparison 6 Vitamin A with other micronutrients versus micronutrient supplements without vitamin A (subgroups), Outcome 4 Perinatal mortality (maternal mortality level).
6.5
6.5. Analysis
Comparison 6 Vitamin A with other micronutrients versus micronutrient supplements without vitamin A (subgroups), Outcome 5 Maternal mortality (prevalence of vitamin A deficiency).
6.6
6.6. Analysis
Comparison 6 Vitamin A with other micronutrients versus micronutrient supplements without vitamin A (subgroups), Outcome 6 Perinatal mortality (prevalence of vitamin A deficiency).
6.8
6.8. Analysis
Comparison 6 Vitamin A with other micronutrients versus micronutrient supplements without vitamin A (subgroups), Outcome 8 Perinatal mortality (prevalence of HIV in the general population).
6.10
6.10. Analysis
Comparison 6 Vitamin A with other micronutrients versus micronutrient supplements without vitamin A (subgroups), Outcome 10 Perinatal mortality (dose).
6.12
6.12. Analysis
Comparison 6 Vitamin A with other micronutrients versus micronutrient supplements without vitamin A (subgroups), Outcome 12 Perinatal mortality (regimen).
6.16
6.16. Analysis
Comparison 6 Vitamin A with other micronutrients versus micronutrient supplements without vitamin A (subgroups), Outcome 16 Perinatal mortality (trimester of pregnancy).
6.18
6.18. Analysis
Comparison 6 Vitamin A with other micronutrients versus micronutrient supplements without vitamin A (subgroups), Outcome 18 Perinatal mortality (randomisation).
See this image and copyright information in PMC

Update of

Similar articles

See all similar articles

Cited by

See all "Cited by" articles

References

References to studies included in this review

Ajans 1965 {published data only}
    1. Ajans ZA, Sarrif A, Husbands M. Influence of vitamin A on human colostrum and early milk. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1965;17:139‐42. - PubMed
Coutsoudis 1999 {published data only}
    1. Coutsoudis A, Moodley D, Pillay K, Harrigan R, Stone C, Moodley J, et al. Effects of vitamin A supplementation on viral load in HIV‐1 infected pregnant women. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes and Human Retrovirology 1997;15(1):86‐7. - PubMed
    1. Coutsoudis A, Pillay K, Spooner E, Kuhn L, Coovadia HM. Randomized trial testing the effect of vitamin A supplementation on pregnancy outcomes and early mother‐to‐child HIV‐1 transmission in Durban, South Africa. AIDS 1999;13(12):1517‐24. - PubMed
    1. Filteau SM, Rollins NC, Coutsoudis A, Sullivan KR, Willumsen JF, Tomkins AM. The effect of antenatal vitamin A and beta‐carotene supplementation on gut integrity of infants of HIV‐infected South African women. Journal of Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition 2001;32(4):464‐70. - PubMed
    1. Kennedy CM, Coutsoudis A, Kuhn L, Pillay K, Mburu A, Stein Z, et al. Randomized controlled trial assessing the effect of vitamin A supplementation on maternal morbidity during pregnancy and postpartum among HIV‐infected women. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 2000;24(1):37‐44. - PubMed
    1. Kennedy‐Oji C, Coutsoudis A, Kuhn L, Pillay K, Mburu A, Stein Z, et al. Effects of vitamin A supplementation during pregnancy and early lactation on body weight of South African HIV‐infected women. Journal of Health, Population & Nutrition 2001;19(3):167‐76. - PubMed
Cox 2005 {published data only}
    1. Cox SE, Arthur P, Kirkwood BR, Yeboah‐Antwi K, Riley EM. Vitamin A supplementation increases ratios of proinflammatory to anti‐inflammatory cytokine responses in pregnancy and lactation. Clinical & Experimental Immunology 2006;144(3):392‐400. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Cox SE, Staalsoe T, Arthur P, Bulmer JN, Tagbor H, Hviid L, et al. Maternal vitamin A supplementation and immunity to malaria in pregnancy in Ghanaian primigravids. Tropical Medicine & International Health 2005;10(12):1286‐97. - PubMed
Dijkhuizen 2004 {published data only}
    1. Dijkhuizen MA. Vitamin A, Iron and Zinc Deficiency in Indonesia. Micronutrient Interactions and Effects of Supplementation [thesis]. Wageningen University, 2001.
    1. Dijkhuizen MA, Wieringa FT, West CE, Muhilal. Zinc plus beta‐carotene supplementation of pregnant women is superior to beta‐carotene supplementation alone in improving vitamin A status in both mothers and infants. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2004;80(5):1299‐307. - PubMed
    1. Wieringa FT, Dijkhuizen MA, Muhilal, Meer JW. Maternal micronutrient supplementation with zinc and beta‐carotene affects morbidity and immune function of infants during the first 6 months of life. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2010;64(10):1072‐9. - PubMed
Fawzi 1998 {published data only}
    1. Arsenault JE, Aboud S, Manji KP, Fawzi WW, Villamor E. Vitamin supplementation increases risk of subclinical mastitis in HIV‐infected women. Journal of Nutrition 2010;140(10):1788‐92. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Baylin A, Villamor E, Rifai N, Msamanga G, Fawzi WW. Effect of vitamin supplementation to HIV‐infected pregnant women on the micronutrient status of their infants. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2005;59(8):960‐8. - PubMed
    1. Fawzi W, Msamanga G, Antelman G, Xu C, Hertzmark E, Spiegelman D, et al. Effect of prenatal vitamin supplementation on lower‐genital levels of HIV type 1 and interleukin type 1 beta at 36 weeks of gestation. Clinical Infectious Diseases 2004;38(5):716‐22. - PubMed
    1. Fawzi WW, Msamanga G, Hunter D, Urassa E, Renjifo B, Mwakagile D, et al. Randomized trial of vitamin supplements in relation to vertical transmission of HIV‐1 in Tanzania. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 2000;23(3):246‐54. - PubMed
    1. Fawzi WW, Msamanga GI, Hunter D, Renjifo B, Antelman G, Bang H, et al. Randomized trial of vitamin supplements in relation to transmission of HIV‐1 through breastfeeding and early child mortality. AIDS (London, England) 2002;16(14):1935‐44. - PubMed
Green 1931 {published data only}
    1. Green HN, Pindar D, Davis G, Mellanby E. Diet as a prophylactic agent against puerperal sepsis. British Medical Journal 1931;2:595‐8. - PMC - PubMed
Hakimi 1999 {unpublished data only}
    1. Hakimi M, Dibley M. ZIBUVITA trial: impact of vitamin A and zinc supplementation in pregnancy on maternal post partum infections. Personal communication 1999.
    1. Prawirohartono EP, Nystrom L, Ivarsson A, Stenlund H, Lind T. The impact of prenatal vitamin A and zinc supplementation on growth of children up to 2 years of age in rural Java, Indonesia. Public Health Nutrition 2011;14(12):2197‐206. - PubMed
    1. Prawirohartono EP, Nystrom L, Nurdiati DS, Hakimi M, Lind T. The impact of prenatal vitamin A and zinc supplementation on birth size and neonatal survival ‐ a double‐blind, randomized controlled trial in a rural area of Indonesia. International Journal for Vitamin and Nutrition Research 2013;83(1):14‐25. - PubMed
Kirkwood 2010 {published data only}
    1. Costello A, Osrin D. Vitamin A supplementation and maternal mortality. Lancet 2010;375:1675‐7. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Edmond K, Hurt L, Fenty J, Amenga‐Etego S, Zandoh C, Hurt C, et al. Effect of vitamin A supplementation in women of reproductive age on cause‐specific early and late infant mortality in rural Ghana: ObaapaVitA double‐blind, cluster‐randomised, placebo‐controlled trial. BMJ Open 2012;2(1):e000658. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Hurt L, Asbroek A, Amenga‐Etego S, Zandoh C, Danso S, Edmond K, et al. Effect of vitamin A supplementation on cause‐specific mortality in women of reproductive age in Ghana: a secondary analysis from the ObaapaVitA trial. Bulletin of the World Health Organization 2013;91(1):19‐27. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Kirkwood B. Trial of the impact of vitamin A on maternal mortality (ObaapaVitA). http://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT00211341 (accessed August 2010).
    1. Kirkwood B. “ObaapaVitA” Vitamin A Supplementation and Maternal Mortality Trial: Randomized double‐blind placebo controlled trial to evaluate the impact of vitamin A supplementation maternal mortality in Ghana. http://www.lshtm.ac.uk/nphir/research/obaapavita/Obaapa_Trial_Protocol.pdf (accessed August 2010).
Kumwenda 2002 {published data only}
    1. Kumwenda N, Miotti PG, Taha TE, Broadhead R, Biggar RJ, Jackson JB, et al. Antenatal vitamin A supplementation increases birth weight and decreases anemia among infants born to human immunodeficiency virus‐infected women in Malawi. Clinical Infectious Diseases 2002;35(5):618‐24. - PubMed
Muslimatun 2001 {published data only}
    1. Muslimatun S, Schmidt MK, Schultink W, West CE, Hautvast JGAJ, Gross R, et al. Weekly supplementation with iron and vitamin A during pregnancy increases hemoglobin concentration but decreases serum ferritin concentration in Indonesian pregnant women. Journal of Nutrition 2001;131(1):85‐90. - PubMed
    1. Muslimatun S, Schmidt MK, West CE, Schultink W, Gross R, Hautvast JG. Determinants of weight and length of Indonesian neonates. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2002;56(10):947‐51. - PubMed
    1. Muslimatun S, Schmidt MK, West CE, Schultink W, Hautvast JG, Karyadi D. Weekly vitamin A and iron supplementation during pregnancy increases vitamin a concentration of breast milk but not iron status in Indonesian lactating women. Journal of Nutrition 2001;131(10):2664‐9. - PubMed
    1. Schmidt MK, Muslimatun S, Schultink W, West CE, Hautvast JG. Randomised double‐blind trial of the effect of vitamin A supplementation of Indonesian pregnant women on morbidity and growth of their infants during the first year of life. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2002;56(4):338‐46. - PubMed
    1. Schmidt MK, Muslimatun S, West CE, Schultink W, Hautvast JG. Mental and psychomotor development in Indonesian infants of mothers supplemented with vitamin A in addition to iron during pregnancy. British Journal of Nutrition 2004;91(2):279‐85. - PubMed
Radhika 2003 {published data only}
    1. Radhika MS, Bhaskaram P, Balakrishna N, Ramalakshmi BA. Red palm oil supplementation: a feasible diet‐based approach to improve the vitamin A status of pregnant women and their infants. Food & Nutrition Bulletin 2003;24(2):208‐17. - PubMed
Semba 2001 {published data only}
    1. Semba RD, Kumwenda N, Taha TE, Mtimavalye L, Broadhead R, Garrett E, et al. Impact of vitamin A supplementation on anaemia and plasma erythropoietin concentrations in pregnant women: a controlled clinical trial. European Journal of Haematology 2001;66(6):389‐95. - PubMed
    1. Semba RD, Kumwenda N, Taha TE, Mtimavalye L, Broadhead R, Miotti PG, et al. Plasma and breast milk vitamin A as indicators of vitamin A status in pregnant women. International Journal for Vitamin and Nutrition Research 2000;70(6):271‐7. - PubMed
Suharno 1993 {published data only}
    1. Suharno D, West CE, Muhilal, Karyadi D, Hautvast JG. Supplementation with vitamin A and iron for nutritional anaemia in pregnant women in West Java, Indonesia. Lancet 1993;342(8883):1325‐8. - PubMed
Sun 2010 {published data only}
    1. Sun YY, Ma AG, Yang F, Zhang FZ, Luo YB, Jiang DC, et al. A combination of iron and retinol supplementation benefits iron status, IL‐2 level and lymphocyte proliferation in anemic pregnant women. Asia Pacific Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2010;19(4):513‐9. - PubMed
Suprapto 2002 {published data only}
    1. Suprapto B, Widardo, Suhanantyo. Effect of low‐dosage vitamin A and riboflavin on iron‐folate supplementation in anaemic pregnant women. Asia Pacific Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2002;11(4):263‐7. - PubMed
Tanumihardjo 2002 {published data only}
    1. Tanumihardjo SA. Vitamin A and iron status are improved by vitamin A and iron supplementation in pregnant Indonesian women. Journal of Nutrition 2002;132:1909‐12. - PubMed
van den Broek 2006 {published data only}
    1. Broek NR. Double‐blind randomised trial of antenatal vitamin A supplementation in pregnant anaemic women in rural Malawi. Personal communication 1999.
    1. Broek NR, White SA, Flowers C, Cook JD, Letsky EA, Tanumihardjo SA, et al. Randomised trial of vitamin A supplementation in pregnant women in rural Malawi found to be anaemic on screening by HemoCue. BJOG: an international journal of obstetrics and gynaecology 2006;113(5):569‐76. - PubMed
West 1999 {published data only}
    1. Checkley W, West KP Jr, Wise RA, Baldwin MR, Wu L, LeClerq SC, et al. Maternal vitamin A supplementation and lung function in offspring. New England Journal of Medicine 2010;362(19):1784‐94. - PubMed
    1. Christian P, Khatry SK, Yamini S, Stallings R, LeClerq SC, Shrestha SR, et al. Zinc supplementation might potentiate the effect of vitamin A in restoring night vision in pregnant Nepalese women. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2001;73(6):1045‐51. - PubMed
    1. Christian P, West KP Jr, Katz J, Kimbrough‐Pradhan E, LeClerq SC, Khatry SK, et al. Cigarette smoking during pregnancy in rural Nepal. Risk factors and effects of beta‐carotene and vitamin A supplementation. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2004;58(2):204‐11. - PubMed
    1. Christian P, West KP Jr, Khatry SK, Katz J, LeClerq S, Pradhan EK, et al. Vitamin A or beta‐carotene supplementation reduces but does not eliminate maternal night blindness in Nepal. Journal of Nutrition 1998;128:1458‐63. - PubMed
    1. Christian P, West KP Jr, Khatry SK, Kimbrough‐Pradhan E, LeClerq SC, Katz J, et al. Night blindness during pregnancy and subsequent mortality among women in Nepal: effects of vitamin A and beta‐carotene supplementation. American Journal of Epidemiology 2000;152:542‐7. - PubMed
West 2011 {published data only}
    1. Christian P, Klemm R, Shamim AA, Ali H, Rashid M, Shaikh S, et al. Effects of vitamin A and beta‐carotene supplementation on birth size and length of gestation in rural Bangladesh: a cluster‐randomized trial. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2013;97(1):188‐94. - PubMed
    1. Christian P, Labrique AB, Ali H, Richman MJ, Wu L, Rashid M, et al. Maternal vitamin A and beta‐carotene supplementation and risk of bacterial vaginosis: a randomized controlled trial in rural Bangladesh. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2011;94(6):1643‐9. - PubMed
    1. Labrique AB, Christian P, Klemm RDW, Rashid M, Shamim AA, Massie A, et al. A cluster‐randomized, placebo‐controlled, maternal vitamin A or beta‐carotene supplementation trial in Bangladesh: design and methods. Trials 2011;12:102. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Shaikh S, Schulze KJ, Ali H, Labrique AB, Shamim AA, Rashid M, et al. Bioelectrical impedance among rural Bangladeshi Women during pregnancy and in the postpartum period. Journal of Health, Population & Nutrition 2011;29(3):236‐44. - PMC - PubMed
    1. West KPJ, Christian P, Labrique AB, Rashid M, Shamim AA, Klemm RD, et al. Effects of vitamin A or beta carotene supplementation on pregnancy‐related mortality and infant mortality in rural Bangladesh: a cluster randomized trial. JAMA 2011;305(19):1986‐95. - PubMed

References to studies excluded from this review

Alam 2010 {published data only}
    1. Alam DS, Raaij JM, Hautvast JG, Yunus M, Wahed MA, Fuchs GJ. Effect of dietary fat supplementation during late pregnancy and first six months of lactation on maternal and infant vitamin A status in rural Bangladesh. Journal of Health, Population & Nutrition 2010;28(4):333‐42. - PMC - PubMed
Banerjee 2009 {published data only}
    1. Banerjee S, Jeyaseelan S, Guleria R. Trial of lycopene to prevent pre‐eclampsia in healthy primigravidas: results show some adverse effects. Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology Research 2009;35(3):477‐82. - PubMed
Chawla 1995 {published data only}
    1. Chawla PK, Puri R. Impact of nutritional supplements on hematological profile of pregnant women. Indian Pediatrics 1995;32:876‐80. - PubMed
Chikobvu 2001 {published data only}
    1. Chikobvu P, Jouvert G, Schall R, Steinberg WJ, Viljoen JI, Kotze M, et al. The effect of vitamin A on reducing mother‐to‐child transmission of HIV in Bloemfontein. 21st Conference on Priorities in Perinatal Care in South Africa; 2002 March 5‐8; Eastern Cape, South Africa. 2002.
    1. Chikobvu P, Ryst E, Joubert G, Steinberg WJ, Voljoen JI, Kriel J, et al. Preliminary results of a double blind randomised controlled trial testing the effect of vitamin A in mother to child transmission of HIV‐1. 20th Conference on Priorities in Perinatal Care in Southern Africa; 2001 March 6‐9; KwaZulu‐Natal, South Africa. 2001.
Christian 2003 {published data only}
    1. Christian P, Darmstadt GL, Wu L, Khatry SK, LeClerq SC, Katz J, et al. The effect of maternal micronutrient supplementation on early neonatal morbidity in rural Nepal: a randomised, controlled, community trial. Archives of Disease in Childhood 2008;93(8):660‐4. - PubMed
    1. Christian P, Jiang T, Khatry SK, LeClerq SC, Shrestha SR, West Jr KP. Antenatal supplementation with micronutrients and biochemical indicators of status and subclinical infection in rural Nepal. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2006;83:788‐94. - PubMed
    1. Christian P, Khatry SK, Katz J, Pradhan EK, LeClerq SC, Shrestha SR, et al. Effects of alternative maternal micronutrient supplements on low birth weight in rural Nepal: double blind randomised community trial. BMJ 2003;326(7389):571. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Christian P, Khatry SK, LeClerq SC, Dali SM. Effects of prenatal micronutrient supplementation on complications of labor and delivery and puerperal morbidity in rural Nepal. International Journal of Gynecology & Obstetrics 2009;106(1):3‐7. - PubMed
    1. Christian P, Shrestha J, LeClerq SC, Khatry SK, Jiang T, Wagner T, et al. Supplementation with micronutrients in addition to iron and folic acid does not further improve the hematologic status of pregnant women in rural Nepal. Journal of Nutrition 2003;133(11):3492‐8. - PubMed
Darboe 2007 {published data only}
    1. Darboe MK, Thurnham DI, Morgan G, Adegbola RA, Secka O, Solon JA, et al. Effectiveness of an early supplementation scheme of high‐dose vitamin A versus standard WHO protocol in Gambian mothers and infants: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2007;369(9579):2088‐96. - PubMed
Haskell 2005 {published data only}
    1. Graham JM, Haskell MJ, Pandey P, Shrestha RK, Brown KH, Allen LH. Supplementation with iron and riboflavin enhances dark adaptation response to vitamin A‐fortified rice in iron‐deficient, pregnant, nightblind Nepali women. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2007;85(5):1375‐84. - PubMed
    1. Haskell MJ, Pandey P, Graham JM, Peerson JM, Shrestha RK, Brown KH. Recovery from impaired dark adaptation in nightblind pregnant Nepali women who receive small daily doses of vitamin A as amaranth leaves, carrots, goat liver, vitamin A‐fortified rice, or retinyl palmitate. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2005;81:461‐71. - PubMed
Howells 1986 {published data only}
    1. Howells DW, Haste F, Rosenberg D, Brown IR, Brooke OG. Investigation of vitamin a nutrition in pregnant British Asians and their infants. Human Nutrition. Clinical Nutrition 1986;40(1):43‐50. - PubMed
Humphrey 2006 {published data only}
    1. Humphrey JH, Iliff PJ, Marinda ET, Mutasa K, Moulton LH, Chidawanyika H, et al. Effects of a single large dose of vitamin A, given during the postpartum period to HIV‐positive women and their infants, on child HIV infection, HIV‐free survival, and mortality. Journal of Infectious Diseases 2006;193(6):860‐71. - PubMed
Laitinen 2009 {published data only}
    1. Laitinen K, Isolauri E, Kaipiainen L, Gylling H, Miettinen TA. Plant stanol ester spreads as components of a balanced diet for pregnant and breast‐feeding women: evaluation of clinical safety. British Journal of Nutrition 2009;101(12):1797‐804. - PubMed
Lietz 2001 {published data only}
    1. Lietz G, Henry CJK, Mulokozi G, Mugyabuso JKL, Ballart A, Ndossi GD, et al. Comparison of the effects of supplemental red palm oil and sunflower oil on maternal vitamin A status. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2001;74(4):501‐9. - PubMed
    1. Lietz G, Mulokozi G, Henry JC, Tomkins AM. Xanthophyll and hydrocarbon carotenoid patterns differ in plasma and breast milk of women supplemented with red palm oil during pregnancy and lactation. Journal of Nutrition 2006;136(7):1821‐7. - PubMed
Roberfroid 2010 {published data only}
    1. Roberfroid D, Huybregts L, Lanou H, Henry MC, Meda N, Kolsteren P. Effect of maternal multiple micronutrient supplements on cord blood hormones: a randomized controlled trial. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2010;91:1649‐58. - PubMed
Roy 1997 {published data only}
    1. Roy SK, Islam A, Molla A, Akramuzzaman SM, Jahan F, Fuchs G. Impact of a single megadose of vitamin a at delivery on breastmilk of mothers and morbidity of their infants. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1997;51(5):302‐7. - PubMed
Sharma 2003 {published data only}
    1. Sharma JB, Kumar A, Malhotra M, Arora R, Prasad S, Batra S. Effect of lycopene on pre‐eclampsia and intra‐uterine growth retardation in primigravidas. International Journal of Gynecology and Obstetrics 2003;81:257‐62. - PubMed
Van Vliet 2001 {published data only}
    1. Vliet T, Boelsma E, Vries AJ, Berg H. Retinoic acid metabolites in plasma are higher after intake of liver paste compared with a vitamin a supplement in women. Journal of Nutrition 2001;131(12):3197‐203. - PubMed

References to ongoing studies

Ahmad 2009 {published data only}
    1. Ahmad SM. Vitamin A and maternal‐infant flu vaccine response. ClinicalTrials.gov (http://clinicaltrials.gov/) [accessed 1 November 2014] 2009.

Additional references

AIDS Report 2008
    1. World Health Organization. 2008 Report on the global AIDS epidemic. Status of global HIV epidemic (http://whqlibdoc.who.int/unaids/2008/9789291737116_eng_Chapter2A.pdf). Geneva: World Health Organization, 2008:29‐51.
Angeles‐Agdeppa 1997
    1. Angeles‐Agdeppa I, Schultink W, Sastroamidjojo S, Gross R, Karyadi D. Weekly micronutrient supplements to build iron stores in female Indonesian adolescents. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1997;66:177‐83. - PubMed
Arsenault 2010
    1. Arsenault JE, Aboud S, Manji KP, Fawzi WW, Villamor E. Vitamin supplementation increases risk of subclinical mastitis in HIV‐infected women. Journal of Nutrition 2010;140(10):1788‐92. - PMC - PubMed
Bloem 1990
    1. Bloem MW, Wedel M, Agtmaal EJ, Speek AJ, Soawakontha S, Schreurs WHP. Vitamin A intervention: short term effects of a single oral massive dose on iron metabolism. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1990;51:76‐9. - PubMed
Borel 2005
    1. Borel P, Drai J, Faure H. Recent knowledge about intestinal absorption and cleavage of carotenoids. Annales de Biologie Clinique 2005;63(2):165‐77. - PubMed
Christian 2011
    1. Christian P, Labrique AB, Ali H, Richman MJ, Wu L, Rashid M, et al. Maternal vitamin A and beta‐carotene supplementation and risk of bacterial vaginosis: a randomized controlled trial in rural Bangladesh. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2011;94(6):1643‐9. - PubMed
Christian 2013
    1. Christian P, Klemm R, Shamim AA, Ali H, Rashid M, Shaikh S, et al. Effects of vitamin A and beta‐carotene supplementation on birth size and length of gestation in rural Bangladesh: a cluster‐randomized trial. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2013;97(1):188‐94. - PubMed
Combs 2008
    1. Combs GF. The Vitamins: Fundamental Aspects in Nutrition and Health. 3rd Edition. Burlington: Elsevier Academic Press, 2008.
Cox 2006
    1. Cox SE, Arthur P, Kirkwood BR. Vitamin A supplementation increases ratios of pro‐inflammatory to anti‐inflammatory cytokine responses in pregnancy and lactation. Clinical & Experimental Immunology 2006;144(3):392‐400. - PMC - PubMed
Darlow 2007
    1. Darlow BA, Graham PJ. Vitamin A supplementation to prevent mortality and short‐ and long‐term morbidity in very low birthweight infants. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2011, Issue 10. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD000501.pub3] - DOI - PubMed
Dijkhuizen 2001
    1. Dijkhuizen MA. Vitamin A, Iron and Zinc Deficiency in Indonesia. Micronutrient Interactions and Effects of Supplementation [thesis]. Wageningen University, 2001.
DRI 2001
    1. Institute of Medicine. Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 2001. - PubMed
Edmond 2012
    1. Edmond K, Hurt L, Fenty J, Amenga‐Etego S, Zandoh C, Hurt C, et al. Effect of vitamin A supplementation in women of reproductive age on cause‐specific early and late infant mortality in rural Ghana: ObaapaVitA double‐blind, cluster‐randomised, placebo‐controlled trial. BMJ Open 2012;2(1):e000658. - PMC - PubMed
FAO and WHO 2002
    1. FAO, WHO 2002. Vitamin A. Human Vitamin and Mineral Requirements: Report of a Joint FAO/WHO Expert Consultation Bangkok, Thailand. Rome: WHO, 2002:87‐107.
Fawzi 1993
    1. Fawzi WW, Chalmers TC, Herrera MG, Mosteller F. Vitamin A supplementation and child mortality. A meta‐analysis. JAMA 1993;269(7):898‐903. - PubMed
FNB 2001
    1. Food, Nutrition Board. Dietary Reference Intakes. Washington DC: National Academy Press, 2001.
Glasziou 1993
    1. Glasziou PP, Mackerras DE. Vitamin A supplementation in infectious diseases: a meta‐analysis. BMJ 1993;306:366‐70. - PMC - PubMed
Haider 2008
    1. Haider BA, Bhutta ZA. Multiple‐micronutrient supplementation for women during pregnancy. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2012, Issue 11. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD004905.pub3] - DOI - PubMed
HAP 2008
    1. Health in Asia and the Pacific. Mortality. http://www.wpro.who.int/NR/rdonlyres/3156FAEA‐AE96‐4C3D‐ADF9‐302C5831A61... (accessed 2008).
Higgins 2011
    1. Higgins JPT, Green S, editors. Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions Version 5.1.0 [updated March 2011]. The Cochrane Collaboration, 2011. Available from www.cochrane‐handbook.org.
Hodges 1978
    1. Hodges RE, Sauberlich HE, Canham JE, Wallace DL, Rucker RB, Meija LA, et al. Hematopoietic studies in vitamin A deficiency. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1978;31:876‐85. - PubMed
Hurt 2013
    1. Hurt L, Asbroek A, Amenga‐Etego S, Zandoh C, Danso S, Edmond K, et al. Effect of vitamin A supplementation on cause‐specific mortality in women of reproductive age in Ghana: a secondary analysis from the ObaapaVitA trial. Bulletin of the World Health Organization 2013;91(1):19‐27. - PMC - PubMed
ICD‐10 2007
    1. World Health Organization. International classification of diseases and related heath problems. 10th revision. Version for 2007. http://apps.who.int/classifications/apps/icd/icd10online/ (accessed June 2010).
IMCI‐ TAG 2008
    1. World Health Organization. Technical Advisory Group on IMCI (IMCI‐TAG). Integrated Management in the Context of the Maternal‐Newborn‐Child Health Continuum. Report of the Fifth Meeting; Texas Children's Hospital; 2006 May 16‐17; Houston, Texas, USA. Washington: Pan American Health Organization, 2008.
Karyadi 1996
    1. Karyadi D, Bloem MW. The role of vitamin A deficiency in iron deficiency anaemia and implications for interventions. Biomedical and Environmental Sciences 1996;9:316‐24. - PubMed
Lidén 2006
    1. Lidén M, Eriksson U. Understanding retinol metabolism: structure and function of retinol dehydrogenases. Journal of Biological Chemistry 2006;281(19):13001‐4. - PubMed
Long 2007
    1. Long KZ, Rosado JL, DuPont HL. Supplementation with vitamin A reduces watery diarrhoea and respiratory infections in Mexican children. British Journal of Nutrition 2007;97(2):337‐43. - PubMed
Mahalanabis 1979
    1. Mahalanabis D, Simpson TN, Chakraborty ML, Ganguli C, Bhattacharjee AK, Mukherjee KL. Malabsorption of water miscible vitamin A in children with giardiasis and ascariasis. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1979;32:313‐8. - PubMed
McGuire 2007
    1. McGuire M, Beerman KA. Nutritional Sciences: From Fundamentals to Food. 1st Edition. Belmont, CA: Thomson/Wadsworth, 2007.
Mejia 1977
    1. Mejia LA, Hodges RE, Arroyave G. Vitamin A deficiency and anaemia in Central American children. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1977;30:1175‐84. - PubMed
Mejia 1982
    1. Mejia LA, Arroyave G. The effect of vitamin A fortification of sugar on iron metabolism in preschool children in Guatemala. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1982;36(1):87‐93. [PUBMED: 7091038] - PubMed
Mejia 1988
    1. Mejia LA, Chew F. Hematological effect of supplementing anemic children with vitamin A alone and in combination with iron. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1988;48:595‐600. - PubMed
Miller 1998
    1. Miller RK, Hendrckx AG, Mills JL, Hummler H, Wiegand UW. Periconceptional vitamin A use: how much is teratogenic?. Reproductive Toxicology 1998;12(1):75‐88. - PubMed
Mills 1997
    1. Mills JL, Simpson JL, Cunningham GC, Conley MA, Rhoads GG. Vitamin A and birth defects. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 1997;177:31‐6. - PubMed
Moffa 1970
    1. Moffa DJ, Lotspeich FJ, Krause RF. Preparation and properties of retinal‐oxidizing enzyme from rat intestinal mucosa. Journal of Biological Chemistry 1970;245:439‐47. - PubMed
Muhilal 1988
    1. Muhilal, Permeisih D, Idjradinata YR. Vitamin A fortified monosodium glutamate and health, growth and survival of children: a controlled field trial. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1988;48:1271‐6. - PubMed
NCCWCH 2008
    1. National Collaborating Centre for Women's and Children's Health. Antenatal Care: Routine Care for the Healthy Pregnant Woman. London: RCOG Press, 2008. - PubMed
Oliveira 2010
    1. Oliveira‐Menegozzo JM, Bergamaschi DP, Middleton P, East CE. Vitamin A supplementation for postpartum women. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2010, Issue 10. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD005944.pub2] - DOI - PubMed
Olofin 2014
    1. Olofin IO, Spiegelman D, Aboud S, Duggan C, Danaei G, Fawzi WW. Supplementation with multivitamins and vitamin A and incidence of malaria among HIV‐infected Tanzanian women. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 2014;67(Suppl 4):S173‐8. - PMC - PubMed
PNM 2005
    1. World Health Organization. Perinatal and Neonatal Mortality. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2005.
Prawirohartono 2011
    1. Prawirohartono EP, Nystrom L, Ivarsson A, Stenlund H, Lind T. The impact of prenatal vitamin A and zinc supplementation on growth of children up to 2 years of age in rural Java, Indonesia. Public Health Nutrition 2011;14(12):2197‐206. - PubMed
Prawirohartono 2013
    1. Prawirohartono EP, Nystrom L, Nurdiati DS, Hakimi M, Lind T. The impact of prenatal vitamin A and zinc supplementation on birth size and neonatal survival ‐ a double‐blind, randomized controlled trial in a rural area of Indonesia. International Journal for Vitamin and Nutrition Research 2013;83(1):14‐25. - PubMed
RevMan 2014 [Computer program]
    1. The Nordic Cochrane Centre, The Cochrane Collaboration. Review Manager (RevMan). Version 5.3. Copenhagen: The Nordic Cochrane Centre, The Cochrane Collaboration, 2014.
Ross 1994
    1. Ross AC, Gardner EM. The function of vitamin A in cellular growth and differentiation, and its roles during pregnancy and lactation. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology 1994;352:187‐200. - PubMed
Rothman 1995
    1. Rothman KJ, Moore LL, Singer MR, Nguyen UDT, Mannino S, Milunsky A. Teratogenecity of high Vitamin A intake. New England Journal of Medicine 1995;333:1367‐73. - PubMed
Rousseau 1992
    1. Rousseau EJ, Davison AJ, Dunn B. Protection by beta‐carotene and related compounds against oxygen‐mediated cytotoxicity and genotoxicity: implications for carcinogenesis and anticarcinogenesis. Free Radical Biology and Medicine 1992;13:407‐33. - PubMed
Semba 2000
    1. Semba RD, Kumwenda N, Taha TE, Mtimavalye L, Broadhead R, Miotti PG, et al. Plasma and breast milk vitamin A as indicators of vitamin A status in pregnant women. International Journal for Vitamin and Nutrition Research 2000;70(6):271‐7. - PubMed
Sivakumar 1972
    1. Sivakumar B, Reddy V. Absorption of labelled vitamin A in children during infection. British Journal of Nutrition 1972;27:297‐304. - PubMed
Sommer 1982
    1. Sommer A. Nutritional Blindness. Xerophthalmia and Keratomalacia. 1st Edition. New York: Oxford University Press, 1982.
Sommer 1995
    1. Sommer A. Vitamin A Deficiency and its Consequences: a Field Guide to Detection and Control. 3rd Edition. Geneva: World Health Organization, 1995.
Stephens 1996
    1. Stephens D, Jackson PL, Gutierrez Y. Subclinical vitamin A deficiency: a potentially unrecognized problem in the United States. Pediatric Nursing 1996;22(5):377‐89. - PubMed
Stipanuk 2006
    1. Stipanuk MH. Biochemical, Physiological and Molecular Aspects of Human Nutrition. 2nd Edition. Philadelphia: Saunders, 2006.
Suharno 1992
    1. Suharno D, West CE, Muhilal, Logman MHGM, Waart FG, Karyadi D, et al. Cross‐sectional study on the iron and Vitamin A status of pregnant women in West Java, Indonesia. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1992;56:988‐93. - PubMed
Tang 2005
    1. Tang G, Qin J, Dolnikowski GG, Russell RM, Grusak MA. Spinach or carrots can supply significant amounts of vitamin A as assessed by feeding with intrinsically deuterated vegetables. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2005;82(4):821‐8. - PubMed
Thurnham 1989
    1. Thurnham DI. Vitamin A deficiency and its role in infection. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Hygiene and Medicine 1989;83:721‐3. - PubMed
Tomkins 1989
    1. Tomkins A, Hussey G. Vitamin A, immunity and infection. Nutrition Research Reviews 1989;2:17‐28. - PubMed
Underwood 1990
    1. Underwood BA. Methods for assessment of vitamin A status. Journal of Nutrition 1990;120:1459‐63. - PubMed
Underwood 1994
    1. Underwood BA. Maternal vitamin A status and its importance in infancy and early childhood. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1994;59:517S‐522S. - PubMed
Van den Broek 1998
    1. Broek N. Anaemia in pregnancy in developing countries. British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology 1998;105:385‐90. - PubMed
Van den Broek 2000
    1. Broek NR, Letsky EA. Etiology of anemia in south Malawi. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2000;72(1):247S‐256S. - PubMed
Von Lintig 2000
    1. Lintig J, Vogt K. Filling the gap in vitamin A research: molecular identification of an enzyme cleaving beta‐carotene to retinal. Journal of Biological Chemistry 2000;275(16):11915‐20. - PubMed
WHO 1995
    1. World Health Organization. Global Prevalence of Vitamin A Deficiency. Micronutrient Deficiency Information System (WHO/NUT/95). Geneva: WHO, 1995.
WHO 1996
    1. World Health Organization. Indicators for assessing vitamin A deficiency and their application in monitoring and evaluating intervention programmes. 1st Edition. Geneva: World Health Organization, 1996:66.
WHO 1998
    1. World Health Organization. Safe vitamin A dosage during pregnancy and lactation. Recommendations and report of a consultation. Geneva: WHO (WHO/NUT/98), 1998. Geneva: WHO, 1998.
WHR 2005
    1. World Health Organization. The World Health Report 2005 ‐ make every mother and child count. http://www.who.int/whr/2005/en/ (accessed June 2010) 2005.
Wiysonge 2011
    1. Wiysonge CS, Shey M, Kongnyuy EJ, Sterne JAC, Brocklehurst P. Vitamin A supplementation for reducing the risk of mother‐to‐child transmission of HIV infection. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2011, Issue 1. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD003648.pub3] - DOI - PubMed
Wolde‐Gabriel 1993
    1. Wolde‐Gabriel Z, West CE, Speek AJ. Interrelationship between Vitamin A, iodine and iron status in school children in the Shoa Region ‐ Central Ethiopia. British Journal of Nutrition 1993; Vol. 70:593‐607. - PubMed

References to other published versions of this review

Van den Broek 2002
    1. Broek N, Kulier R, Gülmezoglu AM, Villar J. Vitamin A supplementation during pregnancy. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2002, Issue 4. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD001996] - DOI - PubMed
van den Broek 2010
    1. Broek N, Dou L, Othman M, Neilson JP, Gates S, Gülmezoglu AM. Vitamin A supplementation during pregnancy for maternal and newborn outcomes. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2010, Issue 11. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD008666.pub2] - DOI - PubMed

Publication types